Abstract
Graves’ disease (GD) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by hyperthyroidism, thyroid goiter, and ophthalmopathy. The disease arises due to the production of autoantibodies that auto-stimulates the thyrotropin receptors in the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Further Reading
Graves’ Disease (Hyperthyroidism)
Arslan H, et al. Power Doppler sonography in the diagnosis of Graves’ disease. Eur J Ultrasound. 2000;11:117–22.
Babcock DS. Thyroid disease in pediatric patient: emphasizing imaging with sonography. Pediatr Radiol. 2006;36:299–308.
Birchall D, et al. Graves ophthalmopathy: intracranial fat prolapse on CT images as an indicator of optic nerve compression. Radiology. 1996;200:123–7.
Charkes ND, et al. MR imaging in thyroid disorders: correlation of signal intensity with Graves disease activity. Radiology. 1987;164:491–4.
Greer MA, et al. Hyperthyroidism. Dis Mon. 1967;13:1–45.
Nugent RA, et al. Graves orbitopathy: correlation of CT and clinical findings. Radiology. 1990;177:657–82.
Ralls PW, et al. Color-flow Doppler sonography in Graves disease: “thyroid inferno”. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;150:781–4.
Rawson RW. Hyperthyroidism. Dis Mon. 1955;1:3–43.
Reed LP. Hyperthyroidism. Dis Mon. 1976;22:1–30.
Hyperparathyroidism
Ahuja AT, et al. Imaging of primary hyperparathyroidism—what beginners should know. Clin Radiol. 2004;59:967–76.
Bertolini F, et al. Multiple ossifying fibromas of the jaw: a case report. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;60:225–9.
Eggert P, et al. Nephrocalcinosis in three siblings with idiopathic hypercalciuria. Pediatr Nephrol. 1998;12:144–6.
Falchetti A, et al. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type I variants and phenotypes: more than nosological issue. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:1518–20.
Ghanaat F, et al. Hungry bone syndrome: a case report and review of the literature. Nutr Res. 2004;24:633–8.
Hsieh M-C, et al. Pathologic fracture of the distal femur in osteitis fibrosa cystica simulating metastatic disease. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2004;124:489–501.
Kabala JE. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in diseases of the thyroid and the parathyroid. Eur J Radiol. 2008;66:480–92.
Krudy AG, et al. The detection of mediastinal parathyroid glands by computed tomography, selective arteriography, and venous sampling. Radiology. 1981;140:739–44.
McDonald DK, et al. Primary hyperparathyroidism due to parathyroid adenoma. Radiographics. 2005;25:829–34.
Reuter K, et al. Unsuspected medullary nephrocalcinosis from furosemide administration: sonographic evaluation. J Clin Ultrasound. 1985;13:357–9.
Rypins EL. Osteitis fibrosa cystica at unusual age. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1933;15:509–12.
Schmidt BP, et al. Hyperparathyroidism-jaw tumor syndrome: a case report. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;67:423–7.
Smith D, et al. Hungry bones without hypocalcemia following parathyroidectomy. J Bone Miner Metab. 2005;23:514–5.
Takeshita T, et al. Brown tumor with fluid-fluid levels in a patient with primary hyperparathyroidism: radiological findings. Radiat Med. 2006;24:631–4.
Wang Q, et al. Power Doppler imaging findings in multilocular giant parathyroid adenoma which caused hypercalcaemic crisis. J Laryngol Otol. 1998;112:769–99.
Growth Hormone Diseases
Boikos SA, et al. Pituitary pathology in patients with carney complex: growth-hormone producing hyperplasia or tumors and their association with other abnormalities. Pituitary. 2006;9:203–9.
Cazabat L, et al. PRKAR1A mutations in primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease. Pituitary. 2006;9:211–9.
Chakraborty PP, et al. Laron’s syndrome in two siblings. Indian J Pediatr. 2007;74:870–1.
Daughaday WH, et al. The pituitary in disorders of growth. Dis Mon. 1962;8:1–47.
Doppman JL, et al. Cushing syndrome due to primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease: findings at CT and MR imaging. Radiology. 1989;172:415–20.
Elster AD. Imaging of the sella: anatomy and pathology. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 1993;14:182–94.
Fisher MS. An unusual bone change in acromegaly. Skeletal Radiol. 1978;3:177–8.
Frohman LA. Diseases of hypothalamic releasing factors. Dis Mon. 1976;22:1–37.
Haupt HA. Anabolic steroids and growth hormones. Am J Sports Med. 1993;21:468.
Jacobs P. Van Buchem disease. Postgrad Med J. 1977;53:497–506.
Kaplan SA. Human growth hormone. Dis Mon. 1968;14:1–33.
Kornerich L, et al. Laron syndrome abnormalities: spinal stenosis, Os odontoideum, degenerative changes of the atlanto-odontoid joint, and small oropharynx. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2002;23:625–31.
Laron Z. Growth hormone insensitivity (Laron syndrome). Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2002;3:347–55.
Laron Z. Laron syndrome (primary growth hormone resistance or insensitivity): the personal experience 1958–2003. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:1031–44.
Mateus C, et al. Heterogeneity of skin manifestations in patients with Carney syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;59:801–10.
Ron E, et al. Acromegaly and gastrointestinal cancer. Cancer. 1991;68:1673–7.
Tani Y, et al. Locking of the metacarpophalangeal joints in a patient with acromegaly. Skeletal Radiol. 1999;28:655–7.
Vandersteen A, et al. Cutaneous signs are important in the diagnosis of rare neoplasia syndrome Carney complex. Eur J Pediatr. 2009;168:1401–4.
Wyszynski DF. Dysmorphology in the Bible and the Talmud. Teratology. 2001;64:221–5.
Osteoporosis
Akpinar E, et al. The intravertebral vacuum phenomenon. Eur J Radiol Extra. 2008;66:e55–7.
Aloia JF, et al. Risk for osteoporosis in black women. Calcif Tissue Int. 1996;59:415–23.
Cahir JG, et al. Regional migratory osteoporosis. Eur J Radiol. 2008;67:2–10.
Freedman BA, et al. Kummel disease: a not-so-rare complication of osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture. J Am Board Fam Med. 2009;22:75–8.
Goldring SR, et al. Metabolic bone disease: osteoporosis and osteomalacia. Dis Mon. 1981;27:1–103.
Hauschild O, et al. Evaluation of Singh index for assessment of osteoporosis using digital radiography. Eur J Radiol. 2009;71:152–8.
Karantanas AH. Acute bone marrow edema of the hip: role of MR imaging. Eur Radiol. 2007;17:2225–36.
Kumpan W, et al. The intravertebral vacuum phenomenon. Skeletal Radiol. 1986;15:444–7.
Libicher M, et al. The intravertebral vacuum phenomenon as a specific sign of osteonecrosis in vertebral compression fractures: results from a radiological and histological study. Eur Radiol. 2007;17:2248–52.
Lorenc RS. Idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int. 2002;70:395–7.
Lutwak L, et al. Osteoporosis. Dis Mon. 1963;9:1–39.
Sarli M, et al. The vacuum cleft sign: an uncommon radiological sign. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16:1210–4.
Vande Berg BC, et al. Bone marrow edema of the femoral head and transient osteoporosis of the hip. Eur J Radiol. 2008;67:68–77.
Williamson MR, et al. Osteoporosis: diagnosis by plain chest film versus dual photon bone densitometry. Skeletal Radiol. 1990;19:27–30.
Rickets and Osteomalacia
Brickley M, et al. Evaluation and rickets interpretation of residual rickets deformities in adults. Int J Osteoarchiol. 2008;20(1):54–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.1007.
Cheong HI, et al. Phenotype and genotype of Dent’s disease in three Korean boys. Pediatr Nephrol. 2005;20:455–9.
Currarino G. Sagittal synostosis in X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets and related diseases. Pediatr Radiol. 2007;37:805–12.
DeJong AR, et al. Pseudotumor cerebri and nutritional rickets. Eur J Pediatr. 1985;143:219–20.
Mays S, et al. Skeletal manifestations of rickets in infants and young children in a historic population from England. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2006;129:362–74.
McBride A, et al. Vitamin D-resistance rickets (X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets). Curr Orthop. 2007;21:369–99.
Ramavat LG. Vitamin D, deficiency rickets at birth in Kuwait. Indian J Pediatr. 1999;66:37–43.
Tosetto E, et al. Dent’s disease and prevalence of renal stones in dialysis patients in northeastern Italy. J Hum Genet. 2006;51:25–30.
Scurvy
Akikusa JD, et al. Scurvy: forgotten but not gone. J Paediatr Child Health. 2003;39:75–7.
Brickley M, et al. Skeletal manifestations of infantile scurvy. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2006;129:163–72.
Firth N, et al. Oral lesions in scurvy. Aust Dent J. 2001;46:298–300.
Ratageri VH, et al. Scurvy in infantile tremor syndrome. Indian J Pediatr. 2005;72:883–4.
Suvarna J, et al. Hemorrhagic pleural effusion: can it be scurvy? Indian J Pediatr. 2007;74:1050–1.
Verma S, et al. Unilateral proptosis and extradural hematoma in a child with scurvy. Pediatr Radiol. 2007;37:937–9.
Fluorosis
Boillat MA, et al. Radiological criteria of industrial fluorosis. Skeletal Radiol. 1980;5:161–5.
Gupta RK, et al. Compressive myelopathy in fluorosis: MRI. Neuroradiology. 1996;38:338–42.
Lian Z-C, et al. Osteoporosis—an early radiographic sign of endemic fluorosis. Skeletal Radiol. 1986;15:350–3.
Mithal A, et al. Radiological spectrum of endemic fluorosis: relationship with calcium intake. Skeletal Radiol. 1993;22:257–61.
Tamer MN, et al. Osteosclerosis due to endemic fluorosis. Sci Total Environ. 2007;373:43–8.
Whyte MP, et al. Skeletal fluorosis and instant tea. Am J Med. 2005;118:78–82.
Lead Poisoning (Plumbism)
Blickman JG, et al. The radiologic “lead band” revisited. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1986;146:245–7.
Nagaraj BR, et al. A rare case of lead poisoning—a case report. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2005;15:67–8.
Raber SA. The dense metaphyseal band sign. Radiology. 1999;211:773–4.
Wiwanitkit V, et al. Lead intoxication: a summary of the clinical presentation among Thai patients. Biometals. 2006;19:345–8.
Adrenal Gland Abnormalities
Assadi FK, et al. Liddle syndrome in a newborn infant. Pediatr Nephrol. 2002;17:609–11.
Assie G, et al. The Nelson’s syndrome…revisited. Pituitary. 2004;7:209–15.
Dogra V, et al. Sonographic appearance of testicular adrenal rest tissue in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J Ultrasound Med. 2004;23:979–81.
Elsayes KM, et al. Adrenal masses: MR imaging features with pathologic correlation. Radiographics. 2004;24:S73–6.
Garel L, et al. Nephrocalcinosis in Bartter’s syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol. 1988;2:315–7.
Juan YH, et al. Adrenal nodular hyperplasia with so called testicular tumor of adrenogenital syndrome (adrenal rests of both testes): a case report and review of the literature. Chin J Radiol. 2008;33:41–6.
Kannan CR. Diseases of the adrenal cortex. Dis Mon. 1988;34:601.
Kasar PA, et al. Allgrove syndrome. Indian J Pediatr. 2007;74:959–61.
Lockhart ME, et al. Imaging of adrenal masses. Eur J Radiol. 2002;41:95–112.
Low G, et al. Characteristic imaging findings in Wolman’s disease. Clin Radiol Extra. 2004;59:106–8.
Luetscher AJ. Aldosteronism. Dis Mon. 1964;10(5):1–46.
Ma ES, et al. Tuberculous Addison’s disease: morphological and quantitative evaluation with multidetector-row CT. Eur J Radiol. 2007;62:352–8.
Madrigal G, et al. Bartter syndrome in Costa Rica: a description of 20 cases. Pediatr Nephrol. 1997;11:296–301.
Martinez-Aguayo A, et al. Testicular adrenal rest tumors and Leydig and Sertoli cell function in boys with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:4583–9.
Mayo-Smith WW, et al. From the RSNA refresher courses, state-of-the-art adrenal imaging. Radiographics. 2001;21:995–1012.
Otal P, et al. Imaging features of uncommon adrenal masses with histopathologic correlation. Radiographics. 1999;19:569–81.
Puura A, et al. Gordon syndrome and succinylcholine. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2005;28:1157–8.
Renken NS, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the adrenal glands. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2005;26:162–71.
Rha SS, et al. The renal sinus: pathologic spectrum and multimodality imaging approach. Radiographics. 2004;24:S117–31.
Shoaib SA, et al. Primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn syndrome): MR imaging findings. Radiology. 2000;214:527–31.
Stikkelbroeck NMML, et al. Testicular adrenal rest tumors. Eur Radiol. 2003;13:1597–603.
Waragi M, et al. MRI of adrenoleukodystrophy involving predominantly the cerebellum and brain stem. Neuroradiology. 1996;38:788–91.
Sex Hormone Abnormalities
Angle B, et al. XY gonadal dysgenesis associated with a multiple pterygium syndrome phenotype. Am J Med Genet. 1997;68:7–11.
Aso C, et al. Gray-scale and color Doppler sonography of scrotal disorders in children: an update. Radiographics. 2005;25:1197–214.
Browne LP, et al. Van Wyk and Grumbach syndrome revisited: imaging and clinical findings in pre- and postpubertal girls. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:538–42.
Chavhan GB, et al. Imaging of ambiguous genitalia: classification and diagnostic approach. Radiographics. 2008;28:1891–904.
Chen H-Y, et al. Pure XY gonadal dysgenesis and agenesis in monozygotic twins. Fertil Steril. 2006;85:1059.e9–1059.e11.
Cho HY, et al. Hydrothorax in a patient with Denys-Drash syndrome associated with diaphragmatic defect. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;21:1909–12.
Choi HK, et al. MR imaging of intersexuality. Radiographics. 1998;18:83–96.
Christensen JD, et al. The undescended testis. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2007;28:307–16.
Elon GM. Hermaphroditism demonstrated by computed tomography. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1983;141:99–100.
Erdem CZ, et al. Polycystic ovary syndrome: dynamic contrast-enhanced ovary MR imaging. Eur J Radiol. 2004;51:48–53.
Franceschi R, et al. Prevalence of polycystic ovary syndrome in young women who had idiopathic central precocious puberty. Fertil Steril. 2009;93:1185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.11.016.
Hedlund GL, et al. Disorders of puberty: a practical imaging approach. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 1994;15:49–77.
Hernanz-Schulman M, et al. Sonographic findings in infants with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Pediatr Radiol. 2002;32:130–7.
Hyun G, et al. A practical approach to intersex in the newborn period. Urol Clin North Am. 2004;31:435–43.
Jagadhish LCTK. Van Wyk and Grumbach syndrome (a syndrome of incomplete isosexual precocity and juvenile hypothyroidism). Armed Forces Med J India. 2002;58:343–5.
Johnsen DE, et al. MR imaging of the sellar and juxtasellar regions. Radiographics. 1991;11:727–58.
Jung SE, et al. CT and MRI findings of sex-cord stromal tumor of the ovary. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2005;185:207–15.
Karabulut N, et al. Stromal tumor of the sex cord in a woman with testicular feminization syndrome: imaging features. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002;178:1496–8.
Kim JB, et al. A case of PAGOD syndrome with hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Int J Cardiol. 2007;114:270–1.
Kodama M, et al. Aarskog syndrome with isolated growth hormone deficiency. Eur J Pediatr. 1981;135:273–6.
Narlawar RS, et al. Persistent mullerian duct syndrome with teratoma in an ectopic testis: imaging features. Eur Radiol. 2001;11:955–8.
Sharafuddin MJA, et al. MR imaging diagnosis of central precocious puberty: importance of changes in the shape and size of the pituitary gland. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1994;162:1167–73.
Wang Y-C, et al. Maternal and female fetal virilization caused by pregnancy luteoma. Fertil Steril. 2005;84:509.e15–7.
Woodward PJ, et al. Tumors and tumorlike lesions of the testes: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics. 2002;22:189–216.
Wu H-C, et al. Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome with seminoma: CT findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000;174:102–4.
Yagubyan M, et al. LEOPARD syndrome: a new polyaneurysm association and an update on the molecular genetics of the disease. J Vasc Surg. 2004;39:897–900.
Yanai Y, et al. Androgen insensitivity syndrome with serous gonadal cyst. Fertil Steril. 2008;90:2018.e9–2018.e11.
Sheehan Syndrome (Postpartum Hypopituitarism)
Dejager S, et al. Sheehan’s syndrome: differential diagnosis in the acute stage. J Intern Med. 1998;244:261–6.
Gokalp D, et al. Sheehan’s syndrome as a rare cause of anaemia secondary to hypopituitarism. Ann Hematol. 2009;88:405–10.
Keleştimur F. Sheehan’s syndrome. Pituitary. 2003;6:181–8.
Vaphiades MS, et al. Sheehan syndrome: a splinter of the mind. Surv Ophthalmol. 2003;48:230–3.
Weiner HA. Simmonds’ disease. Yale J Biol Med. 1937;10:31–9.
Hypothyroidism
Abraham GE. The history of iodine in medicine part I: from discovery to essentiality. The Original Internist. 2006a;13:29–36.
Abraham GE. The history of iodine in medicine part II: the search for and the discovery of thyroid hormones. The Original Internist. 2006b;13:67–70.
Abraham GE. The history of iodine in medicine part III: thyroid fixation and medical iodophobia. The Original Internist. 2006c;13:71–8.
Ingbar SH, et al. Hypothyroidism. Dis Mon. 1958;4(9):1–50.
Morocco M, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism in women: who to treat. Dis Mon. 2002;48(10):659–70.
Pandey V, et al. Correlation between computed tomography density and functional status of the thyroid gland. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2016;40:316–9.
Gynecomastia
Billa E, et al. Imaging in gynecomastia. Andrology. 2021;9(5):1444–56.
Bowman JD, et al. Drug-induced gynecomastia. Pharmacotherapy. 2012;32(12):1123–40.
Dialani V, et al. Sonographic features of gynecomastia. J Ultrasound Med. 2010;29:539–47.
Johnson RE, et al. Gynecomastia: pathophysiology, evaluation, and management. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84(11):1010–5.
Martino E. Man with gynecomastia. J Endocrinol Invest. 1999;22:317.
Narula HS, et al. Gynecomastia. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2007;36:497–519.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Al-Tubaikh, J.A. (2023). Endocrinology and Metabolism. In: Internal Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28575-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28575-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-28574-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-28575-2
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)