Abstract
This chapter serves as a foundation stone for the subsequent interrogation of the various international legal responses to the trafficking of children. Through introducing the contested notions of childhood and children’s rights this chapter contextualises the Euro-American bias of the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989. Providing an overview of the Guiding Principles of the CRC, as the issue of agency serves as an integral tool to dismantle and challenge the role of Western perspectives of mobility, vulnerability, and the ‘other’ in relation to the development of the anti-trafficking machine. The chapter will introduce “children on the move” and illustrate how international law has struggled to respond to these phenomena. Identifying the popular image of the “trafficked child” and how fears of prostitution, migration, and the other have influenced contemporary law and policy globally.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
P.E. Veerman, ‘To what extent did the image of childhood change?’ In P.E. Veerman, The rights of the child and the changing image of childhood (Dordrecht/Boston/London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992), 3–12, 10.
- 2.
The Secretariat of the League was authorised to create a Child Welfare Committee composed of two dozen members, half of them delegates representing countries and half of them representing voluntary associations. That committee constituted one of the main forerunners of the Economic and Social Commission of the United Nations (ECOSOC). See further Marshall, ‘The construction of children as an object of international relations: The Declaration of Children’s Rights and the Child Welfare Committee of League of Nations, 1900–1924’, The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 7(2) (1999), 103–148.
- 3.
Quoted by Gordon L. Berry to T.J. Johnson, 2 April 1924, ALON, 1919–1927, R680, 12/35597/34652. As the Belgian congress of 1921 did not invite countries previously at war with Belgium, the inclusion in the League made for a collaboration between former enemies, in the spirit promoted by the SCIU. PVCE, SCIU, 38th session, 24 March 1921, AUIPE. (Quoted in Marshall, 1999, 120).
- 4.
Covenant of the League, Article 23. The Treaty of Versailles also mentioned the protection of the Young in its preamble (Quoted in Veerman, The rights of the child, 156). Ghébali, ‘Aux origines de l'ECOSOC’, 473.
- 5.
See further Marshall (1999).
- 6.
See further, The Declaration of the Rights of the Child (https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S0020860400006987a.pdf). Accessed September 2022.
- 7.
Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, adopted 26 September 1924, League of Nations OJ Spec. Supp. 21, at 43 (1924).
- 8.
Société des Nations, A.IV, ‘Quatrième Rapport de la Commission de Contrôle à la Quatrième Commission’, 4, in ALON, 1919 1927, R680, 12/38884/34652; ‘International. L’Office international de protection de l’enfance et la Société des Nations’, BUISE, 5, 20 (30 October 1924), 467.
- 9.
See further Chapter 3.
- 10.
Buck (2014, 18).
- 11.
Some would be ready to thank, albeit not without irony Hitler and Stalin for this gift, see further Sieghart, The lawful rights of mankind: an introduction to the international legal code of human rights (OUP, 1985), 35.
- 12.
Mutua, Human rights: a political and cultural critique (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 16.
- 13.
The term ‘post-colonial’ has been used in a variety of ways and summarised in a formulation borrowed from Sidaway (2000, 24) is a commitment to ‘critique, expose, deconstruct, counter and (in some claims) to transcend, the cultural and broader ideological legacies and presences of imperialism’.
- 14.
ICCPR Opened for Signature on 16th December 1966, entered into force 23rd March 1976, Signatories: 74, State Parties 173, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-4&chapter=4&clang=_en. Accessed September 2020.
ICESCR opened for signature on 16th December 1966, entered into force January 3rd 1976, Signatories 71; State Parties 171, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-3&chapter=4&clang=_en#1. Accessed September 2020.
- 15.
‘The inherent dignity and…the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family’.
- 16.
Convention on the Rights of the Child | OHCHR (https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child). Accessed October 2022.
- 17.
Proclaimed by the General Assembly, resolution 1386 (XIV), A/RES/14/1386 (20 November 1959).
- 18.
See, e.g., UK cases; Z. H. (Tanzania) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [2011] UKSC 4, [2011] 2 AC 166; R. (on the application of Williamson and others) v. Secretary of State for Education and Employment and others [2005] UKHL 15; R. (A) v. Leeds Magistrates’ Court [2004] EWHC 554 (Admin) [51]; R. (Kenny) v. Leeds Magistrates’ Court [2003] EWHC 2963 (Admin) [42].
- 19.
Re M. (Abduction: Zimbabwe) [2007] UKHL 46, 55.
- 20.
See, e.g., Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005); Graham v. Florida, 130 S.Ct. 2011 (2010).
- 21.
https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/CRC30.aspx. #CRC30. Accessed September 2020.
- 22.
The CRC Committee in recent years has focused upon the rights of older children, which culminated in the adoption of a General Comment on the implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence. See further, CRC Committee, General Comment No. 20, CRC/C/ GC/20 (6 December 2016).
- 23.
Article 1, Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989.
- 24.
Article 1, Convention on the Rights of the Child.
- 25.
Article 2, Definition of the Child, http://www.achpr.org/instruments/child/. Accessed August 2018.
- 26.
See further, http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-definition.pdf. Accessed August 2018.
- 27.
UNHCR—The UN Refugee Agency (https://www.unhcr.org/). Accessed 20 July 2022.
- 28.
See further, https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/. Accessed August 2021.
- 29.
This point is illustrated neatly by the ECPAT UK and Hynes report from October 2022, which focused upon the positive outcomes for children who had been trafficked into the UK and adopted a participatory methodological approach to the research. See further—Creating stable futures: human trafficking, participation and outcomes for children | ECPAT UK (https://www.ecpat.org.uk/creating-stable-futures-human-trafficking-participation-and-outcomes-for-children). Accessed October 2022.
- 30.
UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), General comment no. 12 (2009): the right of the child to be heard (2009), http://www.refworld.org/docid/4ae562c52.html. Accessed March 2018.
- 31.
ibid. See further K.-F. Kaltenborn, ‘Children’s and young people’s experiences in various residential arrangements: a longitudinal study to evaluate criteria for custody and residence decision making’, British Journal of Social Work, 31 (2001), 81 which highlight a strong correlation between positive long-term outcomes for children’s welfare and adherence to children’s wishes.
- 32.
UN CRC Committee, General comment no. 12 (2009), UN Doc CRC/C/GC/12 (27/07/2009) para. 12.
- 33.
A. Cancedda, B. De Micheli, D. Dimitrova, and B. Slot, Study on high-risk groups for trafficking in human beings (2015), 85.
- 34.
See further UNICEF, Reference Guide on protecting the rights of child victims of trafficking in Europe (2006).
- 35.
Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority [1986] AC 112.
- 36.
See further David Archard, ‘Children’s rights’ in Thomas Cushman (ed) Handbook of human rights (Abingdon: Routledge), 324–332.
- 37.
UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), General Comment No. 20 (2016) on the implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence, 6 December 2016, CRC/C/GC/20, available at, General comment no. 20 (2016) on the implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence (https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/855544). Accessed July 2022.
- 38.
Convention of 25 October 1980 on Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, entry into force: 1-XII-1983 with 101 contracting Parties to the Convention at the time of writing in August 2021. See further, https://www.hcch.net/en/instruments/conventions/full-text/?cid=24. Accessed August 2021.
- 39.
Article 13 (b) Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. The Revised Brussels II Regulation of 2003 also explicitly references to the age or degree of maturity of children within the context of hearing children.
- 40.
See further Noëlle Quénivet, ‘Does and should international law prohibit the prosecution of children for war crimes?’ European Journal of International Law, 28 (2017), 433 Within the context of reintegrating child soldiers into a community is often in the child’s best interests to return to the community, moving on to observe that denying the child’s agency is not a paternalistic approach, but within the context of child soldiers an approach which would be suitable for adult offenders in this specific context. See further Shilan Shah-Davis and Noëlle Quénivet (ed), International law and armed conflict: challenges in the 21st century.
- 41.
ICCPR, http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx. Accessed April 2018.
- 42.
See further Aoife Daly, Children, autonomy and the courts: beyond the right to be heard (Brill Nijhoff, 2017).
- 43.
Edward Deci and Richard M. Ryan, Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour (First, S**er US, 1985).
- 44.
[1986] AC 112.
- 45.
Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority [1986] AC 112.
- 46.
Anna-Maria Bucataru, ‘Using the convention on the rights of the child to project the rights of transgender children and adolescents: the context of education and transition’ Queen Mary Human Rights Law Review, 3 (2016), 17, 59.
- 47.
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/9/contents. Accessed July 2022.
- 48.
Dianne Scullion, ‘The medical treatment of children’ in Ruth Lamont (ed), Family law (First, 2018), 422.
- 49.
OHCHR | General Comments (https://www.ohchr.org/en/treaty-bodies/general-comments). Accessed October 2022.
- 50.
At the time of writing in October 2022 25 General Comments had been adopted with a 26th ‘Children’s rights and the environment with a special focus on climate change’ in draft. See further, OHCHR | General Comments (https://www.ohchr.org/en/treaty-bodies/crc/general-comments). Accessed October 2022.
- 51.
CRC/GC/2005/6 page 5 accessed via Treaty Bodies Download (https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CRC%2fGC%2f2005%2f6&Lang=en). Accessed October 2022.
- 52.
See further Children on the Move: Background Paper, ‘High commissioner’s dialogue on protection challenges’, International Journal of Refugee Law, 29(2) (1 June 2017), 356–338.
- 53.
International Conference on “Children on the Move” (https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Events/WCMS_145302/lang--en/index.htm).
- 54.
Leaving Home: Voices of Children on the Move, Global Movement for Children (2010), 3, https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/document/leaving-home-voices-children-move/. Accessed September 2022.
- 55.
Leaving Home: Voices of Children on the Move, Global Movement for Children (2010), 11, https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/document/leaving-home-voices-children-move/. Accessed September 2022.
- 56.
UNICEF Data brief: children on the move key facts and figures (2018), https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Data-brief-children-on-the-move-key-facts-and-figures-1.pdf. Accessed August 2018.
- 57.
See further, Data brief: children on the move key facts and figures (2018), https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Data-brief-children-on-the-move-key-facts-and-figures-1.pdf. Accessed August 2018.
- 58.
L. Lundy and H. Stalford, ‘The field of children’s rights: taking stock, travelling forward’, The International Journal of Children's Rights, 28(1) (2020), 1–13, Available From: Brill, https://doi.org/10.1163/15718182-02801010. Accessed 28 July 2022.
- 59.
Signed Geneva 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954, in accordance with Article 43. With 149 State Parties to either (the 1951 or 1967 Protocol) or both, they define the term ‘refugee’ and outline the rights of refugees, as well as the legal obligations of States to protect them. The core principle is non-refoulement, which asserts that a refugee should not be returned to a country where they face serious threats to their life or freedom, moreover it is now considered a rule of customary international law.
- 60.
The Protocol required just 6 ratifications and entered into force on 4 October 1967. Instead of an international conference under the auspices of the United Nations, the issues were addressed at a colloquium of some thirteen legal experts which met in Bellagio, Italy, from 21 to 28 April 1965. The Colloquium did not favour a complete revision of the 1951 Convention but opted instead for a Protocol by way of which States parties would agree to apply the relevant provisions of the Convention, but without necessarily becoming party to that treaty. See further Goodwin Gill, https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/prsr/prsr.html. Accessed August 2021.
The 1967 Protocol removed the Refugee Convention’s temporal and geographical restrictions so that the Convention applied universally.
- 61.
A multilateral treaty governing the protection of migrant workers and families. Signed on 18 December 1990, it entered into force on 1 July 2003 after the threshold of 20 ratifying States was reached in March 2003.
- 62.
See also the 2006 Protocol on the Protection and Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons (adopted by the Member States of the International Conference on the Great Lakes) (known as the 2006 Great Lakes IDP Protocol) 2009 African Convention on Protection and Assistance for Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (known as the 2009 Kampala Convention).
- 63.
Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime. Adopted 15 November 2000, Entered into force 28 January 2004.
- 64.
See also the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (known as the 1954 Stateless Convention) and the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.
- 65.
Declaration of Human Rights 1948; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966; and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966.
- 66.
Approved and proposed for signature and ratification or accession by General Assembly resolution 260 A (III) of 9 December 1948, entry into force 12 January 1951, in accordance with Article XIII.
- 67.
Adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill of rights for women. Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination. Aside from the CRC it is the only human rights treaty that explicitly references trafficking.
- 68.
Adopted and opened for signature, ratification, and accession by General Assembly resolution 39/46 of 10 December 1984 entry into force 26 June 1987, in accordance with Article 27 (1).
- 69.
(A/RES/73/195). Accessed via N1845199.pdf (https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N18/451/99/PDF/N1845199.pdf?OpenElement). October 2022.
- 70.
M. M. B. Asis and A. Feranil, ‘Not for adults only: toward a child lens in migration policies in Asia’, Journal on Migration and Human Security, 8(1) (2020), 68–82, https://doi.org/10.1177/2331502420907375.
- 71.
Namely—(1) Collect and utilise accurate and disaggregated data as a basis for evidence -based policies. (2) Minimise the adverse drivers and structural factors that compel people to leave their country of origin. (3) Provide accurate and timely information at all stages of migration. (4) Ensure that all migrants have proof of legal identity and adequate documentation. (5) Enhance availability and flexibility of pathways for regular migration. (6) Facilitate fair and ethical recruitment and safeguard conditions that ensure decent work. (7) Address and reduce vulnerabilities in migration. (8) Save lives and establish coordinated international efforts on missing migrants. (9) Strengthen the transnational response to smuggling of migrants. (10) Prevent, combat, and eradicate trafficking in persons in the context of international migration (11) Manage borders in an integrated, secure, and coordinated manner. (12) Strengthen certainty and predictability in migration procedures for appropriate screening, assessment, and referral. (13) Use migration detention only as a measure of last resort and work towards alternatives. (14) Enhance consular protection, assistance, and cooperation throughout the migration cycle. (15) Provide access to basic services for migrants. (16) Empower migrants and societies to realise full inclusion and social cohesion. (17) Eliminate all forms of discrimination and promote evidence-based public discourse to shape perceptions of migration. (18) Invest in skills development and facilitate mutual recognition of skills, qualifications, and competences. (19) Create conditions for migrants and diasporas to fully contribute to sustainable development in all countries. (20) Promote faster, safer, and cheaper transfer of remittances and foster financial inclusion of migrants. (21) Cooperate in facilitating safe and dignified return and readmission, as well as sustainable reintegration. (22) Establish mechanisms for the portability of social security entitlements and earned benefits. (23) Strengthen international cooperation and global partnerships for safe, orderly, and regular migration.
- 72.
Page 6 GCM.
- 73.
UN Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially women and children, Siobhán Mullally Statement delivered at International Migration Review Forum (Round Table 2), New York, United Nations May 17, 2022.
- 74.
Such as the UN Trafficking Protocol, International Convention relating to status of refugees 1951, 1967 Refugee Optional Protocol, 1990 Migrant Workers Convention, 2000 Migrant Smuggling Protocol, 1949 ILO Migration for Employment Convention (No. 97) 1975 ILO Migrant Workers Convention (No. 143) 2011 ILO Domestic Workers Convention (No. 189) Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons 1954 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=V-4&chapter=5&clang=_en) 1961, Art 14 (1) UDHR and the New York Declaration, 2016. For further information please refer to https://treaties.un.org/Pages/Treaties.aspx?id=7&subid=A&clang=_en Chapter VII; https://treaties.un.org/Pages/Treaties.aspx?id=5&subid=A&clang=_en Chapter V. Accessed August 2018.
- 75.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/36714334. ‘Ruth’s story: One child’s refugee’s journey from Eritrea to England’. Accessed June 2021.
- 76.
Report of Work of the Third Session 11.04.1924 C.184. M.73.1924IV at 5.
- 77.
See further Jovana Arsenijević et al., ‘A crisis of protection and safe passage: violence experienced by migrants/refugees travelling along the Western Balkan corridor to Northern Europe’, Conflict and Health, 11 (2017), 6 that identifies the overwhelming majority of violence perpetrated against minors was done so by state border officials rather than smugglers/traffickers in Serbia and Hungary.
- 78.
- 79.
GAATW, Collateral damage: the impact of anti-trafficking measures on human rights around the world (Bangkok: GAATW, 2007), www.gaatw.org/Collateral%20Damage_Final/CollateralDamage_Frontpageswithcover.pdf.
References
Aitken, S. C. (2001). Global crises of childhood: Rights, justice and the unchildlike child. Area (London 1969), 33(2), 119–127.
Akhtar, R., & Nyamutata, C. (2020). International child law. Routledge.
Allain, J. (2017). White slave traffic in international law. Journal of Trafficking and Human Exploitation. 1(1), 1–40.
Alderson, P. (2012). Young children’s human rights: A sociological analysis. The International Journal of Children's Rights; CHIL, 20(2), 177–198.
André, G., & Godin, M. (2014). Children’s rights in the democratic republic of Congo and neoliberal reforms. In: A. Twum-Danso Imoh & N. Ansell (Eds.), Children’s lives in an era of children’s rights the progress of the convention on the rights of the child in Africa. Routledge.
Ansell, N. (2014). The convention on the rights of the child: Advancing social justice for African children? In: A. Twum-Danso Imoh & N. Ansell (Eds.), Children’s lives in an era of children’s rights the progress of the convention on the rights of the child in Africa. Routledge.
Ansell, N. (2009). Childhood and the politics of scale: Descaling children’s geographies? Progress in Human Geography, 33(2), 190–209.
Archard, D. (1993). Children: Rights and childhood (3rd edn.). Routledge.
Ariès, P., & Baldick, R. (1962). Centuries of childhood: A social history of family life. Cape.
Asis, M. M. B., & Feranil, A. (2020). Not for adults only: Toward a child lens in migration policies in Asia. Journal on Migration and Human Security, 8(1), 68–82.
Bajpai, A. (2018). The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2015: An analysis. Indian Law Review (abingdon, England), 2(2), 191–203.
Bajpai, A. (2017). Child rights in India: Law, policy and practice. Oxford India Paperbacks.
Bakewell, O. (2008). Research beyond the categories: The Importance of policy irrelevant research into forced migration. Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(4), 432–453.
Balagopalan, S. (2018). Colonial modernity and the ‘child figure’: Re-configuring the multiplicity in ‘multiple childhoods. In: T. S. Saraswathi (Ed.), Childhoods in India traditions, trends and transformations.
Bales, K. (2007). What predicts human trafficking? International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 31(2), 269–279.
Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. Routledge.
Bhabha, J. (2016). Children on the move: An urgent human rights and child protection priority. Harvard FXB Center for Health and Human Rights.
Bhabha, J. (2009). Arendt’s children: Do today’s migrant children have a right to have rights? Human Rights Quarterly, 31(2), 410–451.
Bhahba, J., & Dottridge, M. (2016). Recommended principles to guide actions concerning children on the move and other children affected by migration.
Bourdillon, M., & Musvosvi, E. (2014). What can children’s rights mean when children are struggling to survive? The case of Chiweshe, Zimbabwe. In: A. Twum-Danso Imoh & N. Ansell (Eds.), Children’s lives in an era of children’s rights the progress of the convention on the rights of the child in Africa. Routledge.
Brewer, H. (2012). By birth or consent: Children, law, and the Anglo-American revolution in authority. Omohundro Institute and University of North Carolina Press.
Brittle, R., & Desmet, E. (2020). Thirty years of research on children’s rights in the context of migration. The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 28(1), 36–65.
Bucataru, A. (2016). Using the convention on the rights of the child to project the rights of transgender children and adolescents: The context of education and transition. Queen Mary Human Rights Law Review, 3(59).
Buck, T. (2014). International child law (3rd edn.). Routledge.
Buck, T., & Nicholson, A. (2010). Constructing the international legal framework. In: G. Craig (Ed.), Child slavery now. Bristol University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qgxmk.9
Burman, E. (1996). Local, global or globalized?: Child development and international child rights legislation. Childhood (copenhagen, Denmark), 3(1), 45–66.
Christie, N. (1986). The ideal victim. In: E. A. Fattah (Ed.), From crime policy to victim policy.
Collyer, M. (2007). In-between places: Trans-Saharan transit migrants in morocco and the fragmented journey to Europe. Antipode, 39(4), 668–690.
Crawley, H., & Skleparis, D. (2018). Refugees, migrants, neither, both: Categorical fetishism and the politics of bounding in Europe’s ‘migration crisis.’ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(1), 48–64.
Cresswell, T. (2006). On the move: Mobility in the modern western world. Routledge.
Cunningham, H. (2005). Children and childhood in western society since 1500. Routledge.
Dembour, M. B. (2018). Critiques. In: D. Moeckli et al. (Ed.), International human rights law. Oxford University Press.
Detrick, S. (1999). A commentary on the United Nations convention on the rights of the child. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Dimitrova, K., Ivanova, S., & Alexandrova, I. (2016). Child trafficking among vulnerable Roma communities: Results of country studies in 7 EU member states. Center for the Study of Democracy.
Doezema, J. (2010). Sex slaves and discourse masters: The construction of trafficking. Zed Book.
Dottridge, M. (2002). Trafficking in children in West and Central Africa. Gender and Development, 10(1), 38–42.
Dottridge, M. (2014). Editorial: How is the money to combat human trafficking spent? Anti-Trafficking Review, 3(3), 1.
Dottridge, M. (2017). Trafficked and exploited: The urgent need for coherence in international law. In: P. Kotiswaran (Ed.), Revisiting the law and governance of trafficking, forced labour and modern slavery. Cambridge University Press.
Dottridge, M. (2018). Collateral damage provoked by anti-trafficking measures. In: R. Piotrowicz et al. (Ed.), Routledge handbook of human trafficking. Routledge.
Dottridge, M. (2021). Between Theory and Reality: The challenge of distinguishing between trafficked children and independent child migrants. Anti-Trafficking Review, 16, 11–27.
Duane, A. M., & Meiners, E. R. (2021). Working analogues: Slavery now and then. In: Lebaron, G. et al. (Ed.), Fighting Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking: History and Contemporary Policy.
Engle, E. (2010). The convention on the rights of the child. Quinnipiac Law Review, 29, 793–819.
Ennew, J. (2008, September 19). Conference on children’s rights. Swansea University.
Ennew, J. (1986). The sexual exploitation of children. Polity.
Faulkner, E. A. (2019). The development of child trafficking within International Law: A socio-legal and archival analysis. In: R. Deplano (Ed.), Pluralising international legal scholarship: the promise and perils of non-doctrinal research methods. Elgar.
Faulkner, E. A., & Nyamutata, C. (2020). The decolonisation of children’s rights and the colonial contours of the convention on the rights of the child. The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 28(1), 66–88.
Fottrell, D. (2000). Revisiting children’s rights: 10 years of the UN convention on the rights of the child. Springer.
Fussey, P., & Rawlinson, P. (2017). Child trafficking in the EU: Policing and protecting Europe’s most vulnerable. Routledge Studies in Crime and Society Routledge.
Gallagher, A. T. (2012). The international law of human trafficking. Cambridge University Press.
Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women. (2007). The impact of anti-trafficking measures on human rights around the world.
Global Movement for Children. (2010). Leaving home: Voices of children on the move. Accessible via https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/4914.pdf/
Goddard, C., & Mudaly, N. (2009). The ethics of involving children who have been abused in child abuse research. The International Journal of Children’s Rights; CHIL, 17(2), 261–281.
Haynes, D. F. (2014). The celebritization of human trafficking. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 25–45.
Heywood, C. (2001). A history of childhood: Children and childhood in the West from medieval to modern times. Polity Press.
High Commissioner’s Dialogue on Protection Challenges. (June, 2017). Children on the Move: Background Paper, International Journal of Refugee Law, 29(2), 356–381. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eex016
Holzscheiter, A. (2010). Children’s rights in international politics: The transformative power of transnational discourse. Palgrave Macmillan.
Hopkins, L., & Sriprakash, A. (2015). The ‘poor child’. Education, poverty and international development series (1st Edn.).
Horgan, D. (2017). Child participatory research methods: Attempts to go ‘deeper.’ Childhood, 24(2), 245–259.
Howard, N. (2017). Child trafficking, youth labour mobility and the politics of protection.
Howard, N., & Okyere, S. (Eds.), (2022). International child protection: Towards politics and participation. Palgrave Studies on Children and Development. Palgrave.
Huijsmans, R. (2011). Child migration and questions of agency. Development and Change, 42(5), 1307–1321.
Humbert, F. (2009). The challenge of child labour in international law. 64. Cambridge University Press.
Hynes, P. (2021). Introducing forced migration (1st Edn.). Routledge.
Hynes. et al. (2022). Creating stable futures: Human trafficking, participation and outcomes for children. Accessible via https://www.ecpat.org.uk/creating-stable-futures-human-trafficking-participation-and-outcomes-for-children
Imoh, A. T. D., Bourdillon, M., & Meichsner, S. (Eds.). (2018). Global childhoods beyond the north-south divide. Palgrave Studies on Children and Development, Palgrave Macmillan Cham.
Innes, A. J. (2015). The never-ending journey? Exclusive jurisdictions and migrant mobility in Europe. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 23(4), 500–513.
Kapur, R. (2012). Cross-border movements and the law: Renegotiating the boundaries of difference. In: K. Kempadoo et al. (Ed.), Trafficking and prostitution reconsidered. Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315636269/chapters/10.4324/9781315636269-8
Kara, S. (2009). Sex trafficking: Inside the business of modern slavery (1st ed.). Columbia University Press.
Kelly, F. (2005). Conceptualising the child through an “Ethic of Care”: Lessons for family law. International Journal of Law in Context, 1(4), 375–396.
Koomson, B., & Abdulai, D. (2021). Putting childhood in its place: Rethinking popular discourses on the conceptualisation of child trafficking in Ghana. Anti-Trafficking Review, 16, 28–46.
Lammasniemi, L. (2017). Anti-white slavery legislation and its legacies in England. Anti-Trafficking Review, 9, 64–76.
Limoncelli, S. A. (2010). The politics of trafficking: The first international movement to combat the sexual exploitation of women. Stanford University Press.
Linde, R. (2016). The globalization of childhood: The international diffusion of norms and law against the child death penalty. Oxford University Press.
Lundy, L. (2019). A lexicon for research on international children’s rights in troubled times. The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 2019(4), 595–601.
Lundy, L., & Byrne, B. (2017). The four general principles of the United Nations convention on the rights of the child: The potential value of the approach in other areas of human rights law. In: E. Brems et al. (Ed.), Children’s rights law in the global human rights landscape: Isolation, inspiration, integration?.
Lundy, L., & Stalford, H. (2020). Editorial. The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 28(2), 219–220.
Madan, A., Srinivasan, R., & Pandya, K. (2018). Parent-child relations: Changing contours and emerging trends. In: T. S. Saraswathi et al. (Ed.), Childhoods in India: Traditions, trends and transformations. Routledge.
Marshall. (1999). The construction of children as an object of international relations: The declaration of children’s rights and the child welfare committee of league of nations. International Journal of Children’s Rights, 7(2), 103–148.
Martins Junior, A., & O'Connell Davidson, J. (2021). Tacking towards freedom? Bringing journeys out of slavery into dialogue with contemporary migration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 48(7), 1479–1495.
Martins, A., & O’Connell-Davidson, J. (2022). Crossing the binaries of mobility control: Agency force and freedom. Social Sciences (basel), 11(6), 243.
Miller, J. R. (2006). Slave trade: Combating human trafficking. Harvard International Review, 27(4), 70–73.
Mohanty, C. T., & Werbner, P. J. (1988). Under western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses.
Montgomery, H. (2001). Modern Babylon? Prostituting children in Thailand. Berghahn Books.
Mutua, M. (2002). Human rights: A political and cultural critique. University of Pennsylvania Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt3fhtq0
Myers, W. E. (2001). The right rights? Child labor in a globalizing world. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 575(1), 38–55.
Nandy, A. (1987). Traditions, tyranny and Utopias: Essays in politics of awareness. Oxford University Press.
Nations, U. (1989). Convention on rights of the child.
Oberoi, P., & Taylor-Nicholson, E. (2013). The enemy at the gates: International borders migration and human rights. Laws, 2(3), 169–186.
O’Boyle, M., & Lafferty, M. (2006). Remedies in international human rights law. In: D. Shelton (Ed.), The oxford handbook of international human rights law (2nd Edn.). Oxford University Press.
O’Byrne, D. (2012). On the sociology of human rights: Theorising the language-structure of rights: The sociology of human rights. Sociology (oxford), 46(5), 829–843.
O’Connell Davidson. (2005). Children in the global sex trade. Polity Press.
O’Connell Davidson, J. (2015). Modern slavery: The margins of freedom. Palgrave Macmillan.
Okyere, S., Agyeman, N. K., & Saboro, E. (2021). ‘Why was he videoing us?’: The ethics and politics of audio-visual propaganda in child trafficking and human trafficking campaigns. Anti-Trafficking Review, 16, 47–68.
Omoike, E. (2014). In the best interests of the child: the case of child domestic workers in Ghana and Nigeria. In: Twum-Danso Imoh & N. Ansell (Eds.), Children’s lives in an era of children’s rights the progress of the convention on the rights of the child in Africa. Routledge.
Ost, S. (2009). Child pornography and sexual grooming: Legal and societal responses. Cambridge University Press.
Peleg, N. (2019). The child’s right to development.
Pilcher, J. (1995). Age and generation in modern Britain. Oxford University Press.
Quenivet, N. (2017). Does and should international law prohibit the prosecution of children for war crimes? European Journal of International Law, 28(2), 433–455.
Quennerstedt, A., Robinson, C., & I’Anson, J. (2018). The UNCRC: The voice of global consensus on children’s rights? Nordic Journal of Human Rights, 36(1), 38–54.
Richmond, A. (1994). Global apartheid: Refugees, racism, and the new world order. Oxford University Press.
Richter, L. M., & Dawes, A. R. L. (2008). Child abuse in South Africa: Rights and wrongs. Child Abuse Review (Chichester, England: 1992), 17(2), 79–93.
Sanchez, G. (2016). ‘It’s all in their brain’: Constructing the figure of the trafficking victim on the US-Mexico border. Anti-Trafficking Review, 7, 97–114.
Sanghera, J. (2012). Unpacking the trafficking discourse. In: K. Kempadoo et al. (Ed.), Paradigm Publishers.
Saraswathi, T. S. et al. (Ed.). (2018). Childhoods in India: Traditions, trends and transformations. 1st Edn.
Sawyer, C. (2006). The child is not a person: Family law and other legal cultures. Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 28(1), 1–14.
Sax, H. (2018). Child trafficking—A call for rights-based integrated approaches. In: R. Piotrowicz et al. (Ed.), Routledge handbook of human trafficking. Routledge.
Schapendonk, J., Bolay, M., & Dahinden, J. (2021). The conceptual limits of the ‘migration journey’. De-exceptionalising mobility in the context of West African trajectories. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(14), 3243–3259.
Scullion, D. (2018). The medical treatment of children. In: R. Lamont (Ed.), Family law. Oxford University Press.
Segrave, M., Milivojevic, S., & Pickering, S. (2018). Sex trafficking and modern slavery: The absence of evidence (2nd Edn.). Routledge.
Seshadri, S. R. (2018). Food and nutrition in childhood: Ensuring dietary adequacy, diversity and choice. In: T. S. Saraswathi et al. (Ed.), Childhoods in India: Traditions, trends and transformations. Routledge.
Sharma, N. (2020). Anti-trafficking is an inside job. Available from: https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/beyondtrafficking- and-slavery/anti-trafficking-inside-job/
Sidaway, J. D. (2000). Postcolonial geographies: An exploratory essay. Progress in Human Geography, 24(4), 591–612.
Sieghart, P. (1985). The lawful rights of mankind: An introduction to the international legal code of human rights. Oxford University Press.
Singhi, P., & Saini, A. G. (2018). The journey of paediatrics from Vedic to neoteric. In: T. S. Saraswathi et al. (Ed.), Childhoods in India: Traditions, trends and transformations. Routledge.
Sloth-Nielsen, J. (2008). Children’s rights in Africa: A legal perspective. Routledge.
Stalford, H., & Hollingsworth, K. (2017). Judging children’s rights: Tendencies, tensions, constraints and opportunities. In: Anonymous rewriting children’s rights judgments. Hart Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781782259282.ch-002
Stock, I. (2019). Time, migration and forced immobility: Sub-Saharan African migrants in Morocco. Bristol University Press.
Tobin, J. (2005). Increasingly seen and heard: The constitutional recognition of children’s rights. South African Journal on Human Rights, 21(1), 86–126.
Twum-Danso Imoh, A. (2014). Realizing children’s rights in Africa. In: A. Twum-Danso Imoh & N. Ansell (Eds.), Children’s lives in an era of children’s rights the progress of the convention on the rights of the child in Africa. Routledge.
Twum-Danso Imoh, A., Bourdillon, M., & Meichsner, S. (2018). Global childhoods beyond the north-south divide, Palgrave studies on children and development. Palgrave Macmillan Cham.
Van Beuren, G. (2018). Children’s rights. In: D. Moeckli et al. (Ed.), International human rights law. Oxford University Press.
Van Hear, N. (2012). Forcing the issue: Migration crises and the uneasy dialogue between refugee research and policy. Journal of Refugee Studies, 25(1), 2–24.
Veerman, P. (1992). The rights of the child and the changing image of childhood. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Verhellen, E. (2000). Convention on the rights of the child: Background, motivation, strategies. Garant Publishers.
White, S. C. (2002). Being, becoming and relationship: conceptual challenges of a child rights approach in development. Journal of International Development, 14(8), 1095–1104.
Zetter, R. (2015). Protection in crisis: Forced migration and protection in a global era. Migration Policy Institute.
Zetter, R. (2007). More labels, fewer refugees: Remaking the refugee label in an era of globalization. Journal of Refugee Studies, 20(2), 172–192.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Faulkner, E.A. (2023). Protecting Children: Childhood, Rights, and the Trafficked Child. In: The Trafficking of Children. Transnational Crime, Crime Control and Security. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23566-5_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23566-5_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-23565-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-23566-5
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)