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The Rifle that Stands Between Us: Arab Intellectuals and the Jewish Question, 1839–2020

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Antisemitism, Islamophobia and the Politics of Definition

Part of the book series: Palgrave Critical Studies of Antisemitism and Racism ((PCSAR))

Abstract

This chapter examines the ways in which Arab writers in the Levant and Egypt addressed the question of modern Antisemitism. It focuses on Arab writers who critiqued Antisemitism and called to distinguish between Zionism and Judaism. I argue that during the Ottoman and interwar periods, new understandings of representative politics generated an interest in how members of different religions, including Jews, come to identify with their imagined national community. In this period, Middle Eastern Jews shaped discussions about Judaism and Islam, as they lived in Muslim empires and Arab nation-states and played a part in their cultures and literatures. Modern interpretations of the role of religion in Arab societies, shaped against the backdrop of European colonialism and its negative assessment of the Muslim faith, likewise inspired new imaginings of the close relationship between Judaism and Islam. The rise of the Zionist movement and the subsequent conflict with the Palestinian national movement, however, raised new ideas about the relationship between Zionism and Antisemitism. Particularly after 1948, Arab writers sought to define how the future Palestinian state would treat its Jewish citizens and debated whom should be considered an indigenous Middle Eastern Jew. A common argument in these circles was that the Palestinians, who were forced to leave their country, making way to Jewish refugees and victims of European persecution, had actually paid the price for European Antisemitism. Paradoxically, then, because the Palestinians perceived themselves as victims of the Jewish Question, in their discussions, the Jewish Question was very much alive and unresolved. Subsequently, Arab writers attempted to establish that Judaism is a religion rather than a nationality and explored what it meant to be a modern Jewish subject, as they investigated the meanings of being a modern Palestinian subject and an exilic Arab intellectual.

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Notes

  1. 1.

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  2. 2.

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  3. 3.

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  4. 4.

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  5. 5.

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  6. 6.

    Orit Bashkin, “Journeys between Civility and Wilderness: Debates on Civilization and Emotions in the Arab Middle East, 1861–1939,” Margrit Pernau, Helge Jordheim et al. (eds.), Civilizing Emotions: Concepts in Nineteenth Century Asia and Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 126–146.

  7. 7.

    Orit Bashkin, “The Colonized Semites and the Infectious Disease: Theorizing and Narrativizing Anti-Semitism in the Levant, 1870–1914,” Critical Inquiry 47, Number 2 (2021), 189–217; Orit Bashkin, “My Sister Esther: Reflections on Judaism, Ottomanism, and the Empire of Egypt in the Works of Farah Antun,” Marilyn Booth and Anthony Gorman (eds.), Egypt in the Long 1890s (Edinburgh University Press, 2014), 315–341; Orit Bashkin, “Three Syrian intellectuals, a French Jewish Officer, and the Question of Late Ottoman Pluralism,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 50, Issue 4 (2018), 765–768; Özgür Türesay, “L’Affaire Dreyfus vue par les intellectuels ottomans,” Turcica: Revue d’études turques 47 (2016), 237–58; Yaron Harel, “In the Wake of the Dreyfus Affair,” Revue des Études Juives 166 (2007), 473–91.

  8. 8.

    Orit Bashkin, “Why did Baghdadi Jews stop writing to their brethren in Mainz? Some comments about the reading practices of Iraqi Jews in the nineteenth century,” Journal of Semitic Studies: Special Issue on History of Printing and Publishing in the Languages and Countries of the Middle East (2004), 95–110; Lital Levy, “The Nahda and the Haskala: A Comparative Reading of ‘Revival’ and ‘Reform,’” Middle Eastern Literatures 16, no. 3 (Winter 2013), pp. 300–316; Lital Levy, “Historicizing the Concept of Arab Jews in the Mashriq,” Jewish Quarterly Review 98, no. 4 (2008), 452–469; Olga Borovaya, “Jews of Three Colors: The Path to Modernity in the Ladino Press at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” Jewish Social Studies 15 (2008), 110–30.

  9. 9.

    Bashkin, “The Colonized Semites”; Jonathan Frankel, The Damascus Affair: ‘Ritual Murder’, Politics, and the Jews in 1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Sylvia G. Haim, “Arabic Antisemitic Literature: Some Preliminary Notes,” Jewish Social Studies 17 (1955), 307–12; Jonathan Gribetz, Defining Neighbors: Religion, Race, and the Early Zionist-Arab Encounter (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014); Emanuel Beška, “The Disgrace of the Twentieth Century”: The Beilis Affair in Filastin Newspaper,” Jerusalem Quarterly Issue 66 (2016), 99–108

  10. 10.

    Bashkin, “The Colonized Semites”, Bashkin, “My Sister Esther”; Bashkin, “Three Syrian Intellectuals”.

  11. 11.

    Moshe Behar and Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, Modern Middle Eastern Jewish Thought: Writings on Identity, Politics, and Culture, 1893–1958 (Boston: Brandeis University Press, 2013), 10–11; On Pan-Islamic politics, see: Cemil Aydın, The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).

  12. 12.

    Yaʽqub Ṣannuʿ, “Some Teachings of the Koran,” (1894), reprinted in Behar and Ben-Dor Benite, Modern Middle Eastern Jewish Thought, 12.

  13. 13.

    Ya‘qub Ṣannuʿ, untitled essay in Arabic, Le Journal D’Abou Naddara, 18 Shawwal, 1318 Hijri [February 8, 1901], 1–2; reprinted in Behar and Ben-Dor Benite, Modern Middle Eastern Jewish Thought, 13.

  14. 14.

    Al-khilafa 5 November 1899 1–2: see also the analysis in Shaul Sehayik “The Dreyfus Affair in the Arab Press,” Michael: On the History of the Jews in the Diaspora (1997), 211–212 (in Hebrew).

  15. 15.

    L. Zolondek, “Sabunji in England 1876–91: His Role in Arabic Journalism.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 14, no. 1, 1978, 102–115, see in particular, 108–110; Azmi Özcan, “The Press and Anglo-Ottoman Relations, 1876–1909.” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, 1993, 111–117; see in particular, 113–115.

  16. 16.

    James Jankowski and Israel Gershoni, eds., Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Benjamin Thomas White, The Emergence of Minorities in the Middle East: The Politics of Community in French Mandate Syria (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011).

  17. 17.

    Orit Bashkin, New Babylonians: A History of Jews in Modern Iraq (Palo-Alto: Stanford University Press, 2012).

  18. 18.

    Murad Farag, “The War for Our Nation” (Ḥarb al-Waṭan, 1912), reprinted in Behar and Ben-Dor Benite, Modern Middle Eastern Jewish Thought, p. 51.

  19. 19.

    Aline Schlaepfer, Les intellectuels juifs de Bagdad (Leiden: Brill, 2016).

  20. 20.

    Orit Bashkin, “The Lamp, Qasim Amin, Jewish Women and Baghdadi Men: A Reading in the Jewish Iraqi Journal al-Misbah,” Anthony Gorman and Didier Monciaud, eds, The Press in the Middle East and North Africa, 1850–1950: Politics, Social History and Culture (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press), pp. 323–344; 41–54; Guy Bracha, “A Letter from Iraq: The Writing of Iraqi Correspondents in al-ʿAlam al-ʾIsraʾili and Israʾil,” Middle Eastern Studies 52 no. 1 (2016), 102–115.

  21. 21.

    Hillel Cohen, Year Zero of the Arab-Israeli Conflict 1929 (Waltham: Brandeis University Press, 2015).

  22. 22.

    Yoni Furas, “We the Semites: reading ancient history in mandate Palestine,” Journal Contemporary Levant 5, Issue 1 (2020), pp. 33–43; Ernest C. Dawn, “The Formation of Pan-Arab Ideology in the Inter-war Years,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 20, no. 1 (1988), pp. 67–91.

  23. 23.

    Edmund Ghareeb and Jenab Tutunji, “Arab American Writers, the Mahjar Press, and the Palestine Issue,” Arab Studies Quarterly 38, no. 1 (2016), 431–2.

  24. 24.

    Ghareeb and Tutunji, 432.

  25. 25.

    Ghareeb and Tutunji, 435.

  26. 26.

    George Antonius, The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1946), 350–413.

  27. 27.

    Michael Eppel, The Palestine Conflict in the History of Modern Iraq: The Dynamics of Involvement, 1928–1948 (London: Frank Cass, 1994); Esther Me’ir-Glitsenshtain, Zionism in an Arab Country: Jews in Iraq in the 1940s (London: Routledge, 2004); Bashkin, New Babylonians, 202–214.

  28. 28.

    Behar and Ben-Dor Benite, Modern Middle Eastern Jewish Thought, 105–183.

  29. 29.

    Stefan Wild, “National Socialism in the Arab near East between 1933 and 1939,” Die Welt des Islams 1, no. 4 (1985), pp. 126–173; Reeva Simon, Iraq between Two World Wars: The Creation and Implementation of a Nationalist Ideology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).

  30. 30.

    Israel Gershoni and James Jankowski, Confronting Fascism in Egypt: Dictatorship versus Democracy in the 1930s (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009); Götz Nordbruch, Nazism in Syria and Lebanon: The Ambivalence of the German Option, 1933–1945 (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge, 2009); Gilbert Achcar The Arabs and the Holocaust: the Arab-Israeli war of narratives (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010); Peter Wien, Iraqi Arab Nationalism: Authoritarian, Totalitarian And Profascist Inclinations, 1932–1941 (New York: Routledge, 2006); Israel Gershoni (ed.), Arab Responses to Fascism and Nazism: Attraction and Repulsion (Austin: Texas University Press, 2014).

  31. 31.

    Muhammad Najati Sidqi, Al-Taqalid al-Islamiyah wa-al-mabadi` al-naziya: hal tattafiqan? (Beirut: Matba’at al-Kashaf, 1940.

  32. 32.

    Translated by Israel Gershoni in “Why the Muslims Must Fight against Nazi Germany: Muḥammad Najātī Ṣidqī’s Plea.” Die Welt Des Islams 52, no. 3/4, 2012, pp. 482–3.

  33. 33.

    Bashkin, New Babylonians, 141–182; Zachary Lockman, Comrades and Enemies: Arab and Jewish Workers in Palestine, 1906–1948 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Rami Ginat, A History of Egyptian Communism: Jews and Their Compatriots in Quest of revolution (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2011); Orit Bashkin, “The Barbarism from Within—Discourses about Fascism amongst Iraqi and Iraqi-Jewish Communists, 1942–1955,” Die Welt Des Islams 52, no. 3/4 (2012), pp. 400–29; Alma Rachel Heckman, The Sultan’s Communists: Moroccan Jews and the Politics of Belonging (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2021).

  34. 34.

    Harun Zilkha, Al-Ṣahayuniyya, ‘aduwat al-‘arab wa’l yahud (Baghdad: Maṭba‘at dar al-ḥikma, 1946).

  35. 35.

    Esther Webman, “The Challenge of Assessing Arab/Islamic Antisemitism,” Middle Eastern Studies 46, no. 5 (2010): 677–97; Esther Webman, “Treading in Troubled Waters: Seeking the Roots of Muslim Antisemitism,” Bustan: The Middle East Book Review 4, no. 2 (2013): 113–36.

  36. 36.

    Yehouda Shenhav, “The Jews of Iraq, Zionist Ideology, and the Property of the Palestinian Refugees of 1948: An Anomaly of National Accounting,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 31, no. 4 (1999), pp. 605–630; Bashkin, New Babylonians, 182–228; Abbas Shiblak, The Lure of Zion: The Case of Iraqi Jews (London: al-Saqi Books, 1986); Joel Beinin, The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry: Culture, Politics, and the Formation of a Modern Diaspora (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), pp. 60–121.

  37. 37.

    Beinin, The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry, 1–30.

  38. 38.

    Maha Nassar, Brothers Apart: Palestinian Citizens of Israel and the Arab World (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2017); Tamir Sorek, The Optimist: A Social Biography of Tawfiq Zayyad (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2020); Joel Beinin, Was the Red Flag Flying There?: Marxist Politics and the Arab–Israeli Conflict in Egypt and Israel, 1948–1965 (Berkeley: University of California Press 1990); Ilana Kaufman, Arab National Communism in the Jewish State (Gainesville: University Press of Florida 1997).

  39. 39.

    Maḥmud Darwish, “Rita” in https://www.arabicnadwah.com/arabpoets/rita-darwish.htm; for analysis and translation, see Abdullah Al-Shahham, “A Portrait of the Israeli Woman as the Beloved: The Woman-Soldier in the Poetry of Mahmud Darwish after the 1967 War,” Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies) 15, no. 1/2 (1988), 28–49.

  40. 40.

    Al-Shahham, “A Portrait of the Israeli Woman”, 34.

  41. 41.

    Orit Bashkin, Impossible Exodus: Iraqi Jews in Israel, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2017), 207–8, 165–166

  42. 42.

    Jens Hanssen and Max Weiss (eds.) Arabic Thought against the Authoritarian Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (Oxford: Clarendon Press and New York: Oxford University Press 1997); Paul Thomas Chamberlin, The Global Offensive: The United States, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the Making of the Post-Cold War Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Yoav Di-Capua, No Exit: Arab Existentialism, Jean-Paul Sartre & Decolonization (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2018); Bashir Abu-Manneh, The Palestinian Novel: From 1948 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016).

  43. 43.

    Jonathan Marc Gribetz, “The PLO’s Rabbi: Palestinian Nationalism and Reform Judaism,” Jewish Quarterly Review 107, no. 1 (2017), 90–112; Jonathan Marc Gribetz, “When The Zionist Idea Came to Beirut: Judaism, Christianity, and the Palestine Liberation Organization’s Translation of Zionism,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 48, no. 2 (2016), 243–266.

  44. 44.

    Abdul-Wahab Kayyali, “Zionism and Imperialism: The Historical Origins,” Journal of Palestine Studies 6, no. 3 (1977), 98.

  45. 45.

    Kayyali, Zionism and Imperialism, 98–112.

  46. 46.

    Nabil Shaath, “The Democratic Solution to the Palestine Issue,” Journal of Palestine Studies 6, no. 2 (1977): 13.

  47. 47.

    Shaath, The Democratic Solution, 13.

  48. 48.

    Shaath, The Democratic Solution, 14.

  49. 49.

    Shaath, The Democratic Solution, 12–18.

  50. 50.

    Ghassan Kanafani was born in Acre in 1936. His family was forced into exile in 1948, and moved to Beirut and then to Damascus. After graduating from secondary school in Damascus, Kanafani obtained a teaching certificate from UNRWA. He began studying Arabic literature at Damascus University, but was expelled because of his ties to the pan-Arab organization the Movement of Arab Nationalists (MAN). From 1955 to 1960, he worked as a teacher in Kuwait. In the 1960s, having returned to Beirut, he was employed as a journalist and editor, and in 1967 he joined the PFLP, serving as the organization’s spokesman and edited its weekly, al-Hadaf. He authored the acclaimed novels Men in the Sun (Rijal fi’l shasm, 1963), All That’s Left to You (Ma tabaqqa lakum, 1966), Umm Saʿd (1969) and Return to Haifa (ʿAi’d ila Haifa, 1970), in addition to short stories, plays, historical studies and theoretical works on commitment and resistance literature. In 1972, Kanafani was assassinated by Israel.

  51. 51.

    Ghassan Kanafani, ʿAʼid ila Ḥayfa (Beirut: Dar al-ʿAwda, 1970).

  52. 52.

    Ilan Halevi (Georges Alain Albert, 1943–2013). Born in Lyon to a Jewish family, he dedicated his life to anticolonial causes, working with African and African American radicals. Halevi moved to Israel in 1965, where he lived in a Kibbutz and joined radical anti-Zionist Israeli organizations. He left for France in 1976 and, in 1977, met with PLO representatives in Beirut. He was appointed as the PLO’s representative in Europe and to the Socialist International in 1983 and later served in the organization as a vice minister of Foreign Affairs, a delegation member to the Madrid Conference (1991), a member of the Fatah Revolutionary Council (2009) and adviser to Yasser Arafat. Halevi wrote fiction and nonfiction works, especially critiques of Zionism and was a foundering member of Revue des Études palestiniennes.

  53. 53.

    Naʿim Gilʿadi (Naʿim Khalaṣchi, 1926–2010) was born in Iraq to a wealthy Jewish family. He was jailed as a teenager because of his membership in the underground Zionist movement, and served two years in Abu Ghraib prison; he escaped and arrived in Israel in 1950. In Israel, he became disillusioned with Zionism because of the discrimination of Middle Eastern Jews and Palestinians. He joined the Israeli Black Panthers movement and eventually left for New York in the 1980s, where he published several books denouncing the Zionist movement, especially its activities in Iraq.

  54. 54.

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  57. 57.

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  60. 60.

    ‘Azmi Bishara, “Is Anti-Zionism a Form of Anti-Semitism?” 3/2/2019, https://www.azmibishara.com/en/articles/anti-zionism-form-anti-semitism.

  61. 61.

    ‘Azmi Bishara, Is Anti-Zionism a Form of Anti-Semitism?

  62. 62.

    ‘Azmi Bishara, Is Anti-Zionism a Form of Anti-Semitism?

  63. 63.

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  64. 64.

    Ali Harb, “Bernie Sanders transformed debate around Palestine. What comes next?” Middle East Eye, 4/8/2020 https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/bernie-sanders-transformed-debate-around-palestine-what-comes-next; Ali Harb, “Bernie 2020: Arab-American advocates show early support for Sanders,” Middle East Eye 2/19/2019; https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/bernie-2020-arab-american-advocates-show-early-support-sanders; “Amer Zahr, “We Arab Americans and Muslims Are Voting for Bernie. Because He’s Jewish,” Haaretz, 2/23/2020, https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-we-arab-americans-and-muslims-are-voting-for-bernie-because-he-s-jewish-1.8560210; Jaweed Kaleem, “Why many Muslims treat Bernie Sanders like a rock star,” LA Times 9/22/2019, https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2019-09-20/bernie-sanders-muslim-voters-2020.

  65. 65.

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  1. University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

    Orit Bashkin

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  1. Birkbeck Institute for the Study of Antisemitism, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK

    David Feldman

  2. Department of Jewish History, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

    Marc Volovici

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Bashkin, O. (2023). The Rifle that Stands Between Us: Arab Intellectuals and the Jewish Question, 1839–2020. In: Feldman, D., Volovici, M. (eds) Antisemitism, Islamophobia and the Politics of Definition. Palgrave Critical Studies of Antisemitism and Racism. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16266-4_7

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