Abstract
This chapter briefly discusses the mental health consequences of criminal victimization. General guidelines for working with victims of violent crime are discussed in the context of the ‘Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice For Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power’ adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1985. Mental Health interventions for victims of violent crime in the immediate aftermath of victimization, including debriefing and psychological first aid, are evaluated with research evidence. Debriefing is NOT recommended in the immediate aftermath of victimization. There is a dearth of literature specifically evaluating the psychological treatment of victimization. However, participants in many trauma treatment research trials are survivors of violent crime. Trauma-focused approaches, including prolonged exposure therapy, cognitive processing therapy, trauma-focused CBT, and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy, are briefly discussed. Non-trauma-focused approaches include person-centred therapy and brief eclectic therapy. Pharmacological interventions are also briefly mentioned. The evidence base for these treatments is discussed per Cochrane reviews, NICE guidelines, and American Psychological Association guidelines.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychological Association. (2017, July). PTSD treatments. https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/treatments/index
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Psychological debriefing for post traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved March 28, 2022, from https://div12.org/treatment/psychological-debriefing-for-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/
Belsher, B. E., Beech, E., Evatt, D., Smolenski, D. J., Shea, M. T., Otto, J. L., Rosen, C. S., & Schnurr, P. P. (2019). Present-centered therapy (PCT) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2019(11), CD012898. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012898.pub2
Bhuptani, P. H., & Messman, T. L. (2021). Role of blame and rape-related shame in distress among rape victims. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001132
Chandra, P. S., Deepthivarma, S., Carey, M. P., Carey, K. B., & Shalinianant, M. P. (2003). A cry from the darkness: Women with severe mental illness in India reveal their experiences with sexual coercion. Psychiatry, 66(4), 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.66.4.323.25446
Chen, W. R., & Chen, L. M. (2019). Self-blame tendency of bullied victims in elementary and secondary schools. Educational Studies, 45(4), 480–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2018.1509772
Classen, C. C., Palesh, O. G., Cavanaugh, C. E., Koopman, C., Kaupp, J. W., Kraemer, H. C., Aggarwal, R., & Spiegel, D. (2011). A comparison of trauma-focused and present-focused group therapy for survivors of childhood sexual abuse: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3(1), 84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020096
Clevenger, S., Navarro, J. N., Marcum, C. D., & Higgins, G. E. (2018). Introduction to victimology. In Understanding victimology. An active-learning approach (pp. 1–19). Routledge.
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Kliethermes, M., & Murray, L. A. (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(6), 528–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHIABU.2012.03.007
Crime In India. (2020). National crime records bureau. https://ncrb.gov.in/sites/default/files/CII%202020%20Volume%201.pdf
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, General Assembly resolution 40/34. (1985). https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-basic-principles-justice-victims-crime-and-abuse
Dieltjens, T., Moonens, I., van Praet, K., de Buck, E., & Vekerckhove, P. (2014). A systematic literature search on psychological first aid: Lack of evidence to develop guidelines. PLoS One, 9(12), e114714. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114714
Echeburúa, E., de Corral, P., & Amor, P. J. (2003). Evaluation of psychological harm in the victims of violent crime. Psychology in Spain, 7(1), 10–18.
Fazel, S., Lichtenstein, P., Frisell, T., Grann, M., Goodwin, G., & Långström, N. (2010). Bipolar disorder and violent crime: Time at risk reanalysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(12), 1325–1326. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.171
Fazel, S., Wolf, A., Palm, C., & Lichtenstein, P. (2014). Violent crime, suicide, and premature mortality in patients with schizophrenia and related disorders: A 38-year total population study in Sweden. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(1), 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70223-8
Fazel, S., Wolf, A., Chang, Z., Larsson, H., Goodwin, G. M., & Lichtenstein, P. (2015). Depression and violence: A Swedish population study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(3), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00128-X
Foa, E., Hembree, E., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2007). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences therapist guide. Oxford University Press.
Fox, J. H., Burkle, F. M., Bass, J., Pia, F. A., Epstein, J. L., & Markenson, D. (2012). The effectiveness of psychological first aid as a disaster intervention tool: Research analysis of peer-reviewed literature from 1990 to 2010. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 6(3), 247–252. https://doi.org/10.1001/dmp.2012.39
Frieze, I. H., Hymer, S., & Greenberg, M. S. (1987). Describing the crime victim: Psychological reactions to victimization. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 18(4), 299.
Gersons, B. P. R., & Schnyder, U. (2013). Learning from traumatic experiences with brief eclectic psychotherapy for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4(1), 21369. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.21369
Gersons, B. P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Smid, G. E., & Meewisse, M.-L. (2020). Brief eclectic psychotherapy for PTSD. In L. F. Bufka, C. V. Wright, & R. W. Halfond (Eds.), Casebook to the APA Clinical Practice Guideline for the treatment of PTSD (pp. 139–161). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000196-007
Golding, J. M. (1994). Sexual assault history and physical health in randomly selected Los Angeles women. Health Psychology, 13(2), 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.13.2.130
Grove, L. C. (2020). Managing just world beliefs in an unjust world for victims of sexual violence. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 81(5-A), 11446. http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=psyc17&NEWS=N&AN=2020-04052-011
Guay, S., Billette, V., & Marchand, A. (2006). Exploring the links between posttraumatic stress disorder and social support: Processes and potential research avenues. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(3), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20124
Guay, S., Gravel-Crevier, M., Boyer, R., & Marchand, A. (2016). Acute stress disorder diagnosis, clusters, and symptoms as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder, and gender differences in victims of violent crimes. In G. El-Baalbaki & C. Fortin (Eds.), A multidimensional approach to post-traumatic stress disorder – From theory to practice. Intech open. https://doi.org/10.5772/64900
Guay, S., Beaulieu-Prévost, D., Sader, J., & Marchand, A. (2019). A systematic literature review of early posttraumatic interventions for victims of violent crime. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.004
Hale, C. (1996). Fear of crime: A review of the literature. International Review of Victimology, 4(2), 79–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/026975809600400201
Hanson, R. F., Sawyer, G. K., Begle, A. M., & Hubel, G. S. (2010). The impact of crime victimization on quality of life. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(2), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20508
Hase, M. (2021). The structure of EMDR therapy: A guide for the therapist. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 660753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.660753
Hase, M., Balmaceda, U. M., Ostacoli, L., Liebermann, P., & Hofmann, A. (2017). The AIP model of EMDR therapy and pathogenic memories. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(SEP), 1578. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01578
Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., Friedman, M., Gersons, B. P. R., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Layne, C. M., Maguen, S., Neria, Y., Norwood, A. E., Pynoos, R. S., Reissman, D., Ruzek, J. I., Shalev, A. Y., Solomon, Z., Steinberg, A. M., & Ursano, R. J. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 70(4), 283–315. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2007.70.4.283
Howe, E. G., Rosenzweig, L., & Shuman, A. (2018). Ethical reflections on offering patients accelerated resolution therapy (ART). Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(7–8), 32.
Janssen, H. J., Oberwittler, D., & Koeber, G. (2021). Victimization and its consequences for well-being: A between- and within-person analysis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 37(1), 101–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09445-6
Jonathan, B., Neil, R., Martin, A., Rosalind, C., & Catrin, L. (2013). Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2013(12), CD003388.
Karakurt, G., Smith, D., & Whiting, J. (2014). Impact of intimate partner violence on women’s mental health. Journal of Family Violence, 29(7), 693–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-014-9633-2
Kilpatrick, D. G., & Acierno, R. (2003). Mental health needs of crime victims: Epidemiology and outcomes. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(2), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022891005388
Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B. E., Amick-McMullan, A., Best, C. L., Veronen, L. J., & Resnick, H. S. (1989). Victim and crime factors associated with the development of crime-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(89)80069-3
Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Milanak, M. E., Miller, M. W., Keyes, K. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(5), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21848
Kip, K. E., Rosenzweig, L., Hernandez, D. F., Shuman, A., Sullivan, K. L., Long, C. J., Taylor, J., McGhee, S., Girling, S. A., Wittenberg, T., Sahebzamani, F. M., Lengacher, C. A., Kadel, R., & Diamond, D. M. (2013). Randomized controlled trial of accelerated resolution therapy (ART) for symptoms of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Military Medicine, 178(12), 1298–1309. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00298
Le, M. T. H., Holton, S., Romero, L., & Fisher, J. (2018). Polyvictimization among children and adolescents in low- and lower-middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 19(3), 323–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016659489
Lerner, M. J. (2000). Just world belief. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 425–427). American Psychological Association.
Miller, K. E., & Davis, J. L. (2013). In M. Schauer, F. Neuner, & T. Elbert (Eds.), Narrative exposure therapy: A short-term treatment for traumatic stress disorders (p. 110). Hogrefe Publishing.
Monnat, S. M., & Chandler, R. F. (2015). Long‐term physical health consequences of adverse childhood experiences. The Sociological Quarterly, 56(4), 723–752.
Moulding, N. T., Buchanan, F., & Wendt, S. (2015). Untangling self-blame and mother-blame in women’s and children’s perspectives on maternal protectiveness in domestic violence: Implications for practice. Child Abuse Review, 24(4), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2389
NICE. (2018, December). Guidelines for post-traumatic stress disorder. NICE guideline (NG116). https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116
Oram, S., Trevillion, K., Feder, G., & Howard, L. M. (2013). Prevalence of experiences of domestic violence among psychiatric patients: Systematic review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 202(2), 94–99. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.109934
Oram, S., Khalifeh, H., & Howard, L. M. (2017). Violence against women and mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(2), 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30261-9
Pegram, S. E., & Abbey, A. (2019). Associations between sexual assault severity and psychological and physical health outcomes: Similarities and differences among African American and Caucasian Survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(19), 4020–4040. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516673626
Ramirez de Arellano, M. A., Russell Lyman, D., Jobe-Shields, L., George, P., Dougherty, R. H., Daniels, A. S., Shoma Ghose, S., Huang, L., & Delphin-Rittmon, M. E. (2014). Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy: Assessing the evidence. Psychiatric Services, 65(5), 591–602.
Renu, R., & Chopra, G. (2019). Child sexual abuse in India and the protection of children from sexual offences (POCSO) act 2012: A research review. Integrated Journal of Social Sciences, 6(2), 49–56.
Resick, P., Monson, C., & Chard, K. (2006). Cognitive processing therapy: Veteran/military version. Clinical Psychology, 74, 898–907.
Resick, P. A., Monson, C. M., & Chard, K. M. (2016). Cognitive processing therapy for PTSD: A comprehensive manua. Guilford Publications.
Roberts, N. P., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., & Bisson, J. I. (2010). Early psychological interventions to treat acute traumatic stress symptoms. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3), CD007944. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd007944.pub2
Rose, S. C., Bisson, J., Churchill, R., & Wessely, S. (2002). Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2), CD000560. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd000560
Ruback, R. B., & Thompson, M. P. (2001). Social and psychological consequences of violent victimization. Sage. Page 29–49. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483345413.n2
Ruback, R., & Thompson, M. (2014). Social and psychological consequences of violent victimization. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483345413
Rühs, F., Greve, W., & Kappes, C. (2017). Co** with criminal victimization and fear of crime: The protective role of accommodative self-regulation. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 22(2), 359–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12106
Scherg, R. H., & Ejrnæs, A. (2021). Heterogeneous impact of victimization on sense of safety: The influence of past victimization. Victims and Offenders, 17(3), 395–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2021.1943091
Seid, A. K., Hesse, M., Houborg, E., & Thylstrup, B. (2021). Substance use and violent victimization: Evidence from a cohort of >82,000 patients treated for alcohol and drug use disorder in Denmark. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(13–14), NP12427–NP12452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521997456
Sharkey, P. (2018). The long reach of violence: A broader perspective on data, theory, and evidence on the prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 85–102. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092316
Sookram, S., Saridakis, G., & Mohammed, A. M. (2011). Do victims of crime fear crime more? Empirical evidence from the survey of living conditions (2005) of Trinidad and Tobago. Social and Economic Studies, 60(2), 127–144.
Strawn, J. R., Keeshin, B. R., DelBello, M. P., Geracioti, T. D., & Putnam, F. W. (2010). Psychopharmacologic treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: A review. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(7), 16144. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.09R05446BLU
Tan, S. Y., & Haining, R. (2016). Crime victimization and the implications for individual health and wellbeing: A Sheffield case study. Social Science and Medicine, 167, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.08.018
Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 37. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.959
Trevillion, K., Oram, S., Feder, G., & Howard, L. M. (2012). Experiences of domestic violence and mental disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 7(12), e51740. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051740
Ullman, S. E., & Brecklin, L. R. (2003). Sexual assault history and health-related outcomes in a national sample of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27(1), 46–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-2-00006
van Emmerik, A. A. P., Kamphuis, J. H., Hulsbosch, A. M., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2002). Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: A meta-analysis. Lancet, 360(9335), 766–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09897-5
Waits, W., Marumoto, M., & Weaver, J. (2017). Accelerated resolution therapy (ART): A review and research to date. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(3), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0765-y
Walker, H. E., Freud, J. S., Ellis, R. A., Fraine, S. M., & Wilson, L. C. (2019). The prevalence of sexual revictimization: A meta-analytic review. In Trauma, violence, and abuse (Vol. 20(1), pp. 67–80). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017692364
Watkins, L. E., Sprang, K. R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2018). Treating PTSD: A review of evidence-based psychotherapy interventions. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 12, 258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00258
Young, M. A. (1993). Victim assistance: Frontiers and fundamentals. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Zatzick, D. F., Rivara, F. P., Nathens, A. B., Jurkovich, G. J., Wang, J., Fan, M. Y., Russo, J., Salkever, D. S., & Mackenzie, E. J. (2007). A nationwide US study of post-traumatic stress after hospitalization for physical injury. Psychological Medicine, 37(10), 1469–1480. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707000943
Zlotnick, C., Johnson, J., & Najavits, L. M. (2009). Randomized controlled pilot study of cognitive-behavioral therapy in a sample of incarcerated women with substance use disorder and PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 40(4), 325–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2008.09.004
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Thomas, N., Kamath, A.G. (2022). Medical and Psychological Management of Victimization. In: Gopalan, R.T. (eds) Victimology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12930-8_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12930-8_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-12929-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-12930-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)