Abstract
This chapter reports on a doctoral thesis with a focus on contract cheating in Canadian higher education. The study adopted an academic literacies approach (Lea & Street, Studies in Higher Education, 23(2), 157–173, 1998) which views literacy as a social practice and attends to the increasingly digital nature of literacies. In addition, Bourdieu’s (Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education, Greenwood, 1986) notions of capital were utilised to interpret the findings. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ghostwriters, students, and teaching staff. The project findings identified both collaboration and a form of literacy brokering within some student-ghostwriter relationships, giving rise to the term assessment brokering (Thacker, Contract cheating and academic literacies: Exploring the landscape. Keele University, 2022). The study findings challenge the current binary discourse found in academic integrity literature and call for a focus on assessment literacy and threshold concepts (Meyer and Land, Improving student learning: Improving student learning theory and practice. OCSLD, 2003) to address contract cheating.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahsan, K., Akbar, S., & Kam, B. (2021). Contract cheating in higher education: A systematic literature review and future research agenda. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.1931660
Amigud, A., & Lancaster, T. (2019a). I will pay someone to do my assignment: An analysis of market demand for contract cheating services on Twitter. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 45(4), 541–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1670780
Amigud, A., & Lancaster, T. (2019b). 246 reasons to cheat: An analysis of students’ reasons for seeking to outsource academic work. Computers & Education, 134(June), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.01.017
Barrett, R., & Cox, A. (2005). ‘At least they’re learning something’: The hazy line between collaboration and collusion. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(2), 107–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260293042000264226
Barton, D. (2007). Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of written language (2nd ed.). Blackwell.
Barton, D., Hamilton, M., & Ivanič, R. (2000). Situated literacies: Reading and writing in context. Routledge.
Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. Routledge.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction - A social critique of the judgment of taste. (R. Nice, Trans.) Harvard. (Original work published 1979).
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood. (Original work published 1983).
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. (1992). An introduction to reflexive practice. University of Chicago.
Bretag, T., Harper, R., Burton, M., Ellis, C., Newton, P., Rozenberg, P., Saddiqui, S., & van Haeringen, K. (2019a). Contract cheating: A survey of Australian university students. Studies in Higher Education, 44(11), 1837–1856. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1462788
Bretag, T., Harper, R., Burton, B., Ellis, C., Newton, P., van Haeringen, K., Saddiqui, S., & Rozenberg, P. (2019b). Contract cheating and assessment design: Exploring the relationship. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(5), 676–691. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1527892
Chang, D. H. (2018). Academic dishonesty in a postsecondary multilingual institution. BC TEAL Journal, 3(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.14288/bctj.v3i1.287
Clarke, R., & Lancaster, T. (2006). Eliminating the successor to plagiarism? Identifying the usage of contract cheating sites. [Paper presentation] Second International Plagiarism Conference, Gateshead, UK.
Cutri, J., Abraham, A., Karlina, Y., Patel, S. V., Moharami, M., Zeng, S., Manzari, E., & Pretorius, L. (2021). Academic integrity at doctoral level: The influence of the imposter phenomenon and cultural differences on academic writing. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 17(8), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-021-00074-w
Dawson, P. (2020). Defending assessment security in a digital world: Preventing e-cheating and supporting academic integrity in higher education. Routledge.
Eaton, S. E. (2021). Plagiarism in higher education: Tackling tough topics in academic integrity. Libraries Unlimited.
Eaton, S. E., & Edino, R. I. (2018). Strengthening the research agenda of educational integrity in Canada: A review of the research literature and call to action. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 14(5), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-018-0028-7
Eaton, S. E., Chibry, N., Toye, M. A., & Rossi, S. (2019). Interinstitutional perspectives on contract cheating: A qualitative narrative exploration from Canada. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 15(9), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-019-0046-0
Ellis, C., Zucker, I. M., & Randall, D. (2018). The infernal business of contract cheating: Understanding the business processes and models of academic custom writing sites. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 14(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-017-0024-3
Fernández Ruiz, M. R., Corpas Pastor, G., & Seghiri, M. (2019). Crossing the border between postcolonial reality and the ‘outer world’: Translation and representation of the third space into a fourth space. Cultura, Lenguaje y Representación, 21, 55–70.
Google. (n.d.). Google docs - About. https://www.google.ca/docs/about/
Grenfell, N., Bloome, D., Hardy, C., Pahl, K., Rowsell, J., & Street, B. V. (2012). Language, ethnography, and education. Routledge.
Gutiérrez, K. D. (2008). Develo** a sociocritical literacy in the third space. Reading Research Quarterly, 43(2), 148–164. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.43.2.3
Hamilton, M. (2010). Literacy in social context. In N. Hughes & I. Schwab (Eds.), Teaching adult literacy: Principles and practice (pp. 7–28). Open University.
Harper, R., Bretag, T., Ellis, C., Newton, P., Rozenberg, P., Saddiqui, S., & van Haeringen, K. (2019). Contract cheating: A survey of Australian university staff. Studies in Higher Education, 44(11), 1857–1873. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1462789
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words.
Ivanič, R. (1998). Writing and identity. John Benjamins.
Kent, S. (2016). Threshold concepts. Taylor Institute for Teaching & Learning - University of Calgary. https://taylorinstitute.ucalgary.ca/sites/default/files/TI%20Guides/Threshold_Concepts_Guide.pdf
Lancaster, T. (2018). Profiling the international academic ghostwriters who are providing low-cost essays and assignments for the contract cheating industry. Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 17(1), 72–86. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-04-2018-0040
Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2008). Digital literacies. Peter Lang.
Lareau, A., & Weininger, E. B. (2003). Cultural capital in educational research: A critical assessment. Theory and Society, 32, 567–606. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3649652
Lea, M., & Street, B. (1998). Student writing in higher education: An academic literacies approach. Studies in Higher Education, 23(2), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079812331380364
Lee, S. (2018). Found in translation: How brokering practices support international students’ learning. Teachers and Curriculum, 18(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.15663/tandc.v18i1.325
Macdonald, R., & Carroll, J. (2006). Plagiarism - A complex issue requiring a holistic institutional approach. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 31(2), 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930500262536
Mannion, G., Ivanič, R., & LfLFE Research Group. (2007). Map** literacy practices: Theory, methodology, methods. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 20(1), 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518390600924063
Meyer, J. H. F., & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: Linkages to ways of thinking and practicing within the disciplines. In C. Rust (Ed.), Improving student learning: Improving student learning theory and practice. OCSLD.
Miron, J. B., McKenzie, A., Eaton, S. E., Stoesz, B. M., Thacker, E. J., Devereaux, L., Persaud, N., Steeves, M., & Rowbotham, K. (2021). Academic integrity policy analysis of publicly funded universities in Ontario, Canada: A focus on contract cheating. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 197, 62–75. https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/cjeap/article/view/72082
Moje, E. B., Ciechanowski, K. M., Kramer, K., Ellis, L., Carrillo, R., & Collazo, T. (2004). Working toward third space in content area literacy: An examination of everyday funds of knowledge and discourse. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(1), 38–70. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.39.1.4
Morris, E. J. (2018). Academic integrity matters: Five considerations for addressing contract cheating. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 14(15), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-018-0038-5
Novak, J., & Gowin, D. (1984). Concept map** for meaningful learning. In J. Novack & D. Gowin (Eds.), Learning how to learn (pp. 15–54).
Park, J., & Fallon, G. (2016). Notions of literacy in the K–12 school system in British Columbia education since 2002: A contested terrain. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 179, 1–38. https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/cjeap/article/view/42891
Paxton, M., & Frith, V. (2014). Implications of academic literacies research for knowledge making and curriculum design. Higher Education, 67, 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-013-9675-z
Perry, K. (2009). Genres, contexts, and literacy practices: Literacy brokering among Sudanese refugee families. Reading Research Quarterly, 44(3), 256–276. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.44.3.2
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA). (2020). Contracting to cheat in higher education: How to address contract cheating, the use of third-party services and essay mills (2nd ed.). https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/guidance/contracting-to-cheat-in-higher-education-2nd-edition.pdf
Raslie, H., & Keong, Y. C. (2017). Literacy brokering among the international students of a public university. Language Studies, 17(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2017-1701-01
Rogerson, A. (2017). Detecting contract cheating in essay and report submissions: Process, patterns, clues, and conversations. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 13(10), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-017-0021-6
Rojas, V., Straubhaar, J., Roychowdhury, D., & Okur, O. (2003). Communities, cultural capital, and the digital divide. In E. Bucy & J. Newhagen (Eds.), Media access: Social and psychological dimensions of new technology use (pp. 107–130). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410609663
Rowland, S., Slade, C., Wong, K., & Whiting, B. (2018). ‘Just turn to us’: The persuasive features of contract cheating websites. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(4), 652–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449642.2017.1412178
Rundle, K., Curtis, G. J., & Clare, J. (2019). Why students do not engage in contract cheating. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(2229), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02229
Sivasubramaniam, S., Kostelidou, K., & Ramachandran, S. (2016). A close encounter with ghostwriters: An initial exploration study on background, strategies, and attitudes of independent essay providers. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 12(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-016-0007-9
Steel, A. (2017). Contract cheating: Will students pay for serious consequences? Alternative Law Review, 42(2), 123–129. 10.1177%2F1037969X17710627
Stoesz, B. M., Eaton, S. E., Miron, J., & Thacker, E. J. (2019). Academic integrity and contract cheating policy analysis of colleges in Ontario, Canada. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-019-0042-4
Storch, N. (2019). Collaborative writing. Language Teaching, 52(1), 40–59. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444818000320
Street, B. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice.
Thacker, E. J. (2022). Contract cheating and academic literacies: Exploring the landscape [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. Keele University.
Valentine, K. (2006). Plagiarism as literacy practice: Recognizing and rethinking ethical binaries. College Composition and Communication, 58(1), 89–109. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20456924
Walker, C. (2019). The white-collar hustle: Academic writing & the Kenyan digital labour economy [PhD thesis]. University of Oxford. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:35c57129-11eb-4fad-a91f-65b2f3849b7a
Walker, M., & Townley, C. (2012). Contract cheating: A new challenge for academic honesty? Academic Ethics, 10, 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-012-9150-y
Willis, J., Adie, L., & Klenowski, V. (2013). Conceptualising teachers’ assessment literacies in an era of curriculum and assessment reform. Australian Educational Researcher, 40, 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-013-0089-9
Zheng, S., & Cheng, J. (2015). Academic ghostwriting and international students. Young Scholars in Writing, 12, 124–133. https://repository.usfca.edu/rl_stu/1/
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Thacker, E.J. (2022). Assessment Brokering and Collaboration: Ghostwriter and Student Academic Literacies. In: Eaton, S.E., Curtis, G.J., Stoesz, B.M., Clare, J., Rundle, K., Seeland, J. (eds) Contract Cheating in Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12680-2_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12680-2_19
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-12679-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-12680-2
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)