Abstract
This chapter revolves around the notion of climate justice as the lenses through which we should read the rest of the book and interpret issues around Indigenous peoples and climate change. The meaning of climate justice is constructed through the most well-known political and legal theory of what does constitute justice and applied to the climate and environmental framework. It considers theories of justice built around discourses of distribution, recognition and participation and how these theses can be applied to climate change. It then considers the so-called theory of the capabilities approach in the context of environmental justice and how this theory can be translated into a human rights theory in the realm of environmental rights. This chapter aims at critically re-discussing narratives around recognition as a means by which settler States and post-colonial societies have given voice to Indigenous peoples in climate governance. In fact, Indigenous customary law associated with Indigenous knowledge has increasingly been recognized at the international level as a means by which humanity can be cope with the negative effects of climate change and environmental destruction.
The second part of this chapter presents a case study based on the community research conducted in the Peruvian Amazon with Yanesha Indigenous people. The current situation of Yanesha people in relation to climate change is put into perspective through a colonial and neo-colonial approach, evidencing, on the one hand, that a critical approach to the conceptualization of “vulnerability” of Indigenous peoples to climate change is needed, and, on the other hand, how their ancestral forest can be intended as sacred landscape, or as a resource to be exploited and made productive. After this introduction, the chapter enumerates the multiple challenges related to climate change that Yanesha people are facing. This information is the result of the fieldwork conducted in November 2018.
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Notes
- 1.
As an instance, consider the 2015 Wampis Statute, an Indigenous people of Peru, with which the Wampis nation declared its government to be autonomous under the principle of self-determination. See also: Estatuto del Gobierno Territorial Autónomo de la Nación Wampis, En memoria de nuestros ancestros y por nuestro derecho a la libre determinación como pueblo y nación., at https://nacionwampis.com/autonomia-en-accion/#estatuto, last accessed February 2021.
- 2.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, at https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/climate-change.html#:~:text=Indigenous%20peoples%20in%20Africa’s%20Kalahari,negatively%20impacted%20traditional%20cattle%20and, last accessed March 2021.
- 3.
This is what is arguing the civil society movement Extinction Rebellion. Website: https://rebellion.global/, last accessed February 2021.
- 4.
The Guardian, How long do greenhouse gases stay in the air?, 2012, available at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/16/greenhouse-gases-remain-air#:~:text=Between%2065%25%20and%2080%25%20of,chemical%20weathering%20and%20rock%20formation, last accessed February 2021.
- 5.
Seventy-five percent of the world annual CO2 emissions come from the industrialized countries in the “Global North”. Climate justice then requires understanding this inequality, linking it to the underlying inequalities rooted in human health, power and privilege.
- 6.
The term “Anthropocene” was coined by Jason Moore. In his words, “the Capitalocene signifies capitalism as a way of organizing nature—as a multispecies, situated, capitalist world-ecology” (Moore, 2016, p. 6).
- 7.
This term is used by Donna Haraway, which configurates the problem of the Anthropocene as fundamentally a problem of thinking humanity’s place in the web of life: “It matters what thoughts think thoughts.” Chthulucene requires sympoiesis, or making-with, rather than auto-poiesis, or self-making. This means that what is needed is learning to cope with the issue of living and dying together on a damaged earth. The Chthulucene is “made up of ongoing multispecies stories and practises of becoming-with in times that remain at stake, in precarious times, in which the world is not finished and the sky has not fallen—yet” (Haraway, 2015).
- 8.
See Worldwide Fund for Nature website, at https://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/sustainability-works/posts/our-footprint-in-seven-facts, last accessed September 2022.
- 9.
See Earth’s Overshoot Day website, at https://www.overshootday.org/about/, last accessed September 2022.
- 10.
The EU is one of the world’s largest importers of soybeans from Brazil and the US. See also The Observatory of Economic Complexity website, at https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/soybeans/reporter/bra, last accessed September 2022.
- 11.
The Climate Change strategic plan (2013) can be consulted at: http://csktclimate.org/downloads/Climate%20Change%20Strategic%20Plan/CSKT%20Climate%20Change%20Adaptation%20Plan%204.14.16.pdf, last accessed February 2021.
- 12.
The Mystic Lake Declaration, November 21, 2009. At https://www.ienearth.org/docs/TheMysticLakeDeclaration.pdf, last accessed September 2022.
- 13.
This conceptualization resonates particularly with Esmeir (2006) work, and it is an important framework to contextualize the human rights critique expressed in the next chapter. Esmeir in fact denotes that the modern constitution of law was realized both through dehumanization, intended as withholding of rights—or non-recognition of peoples as humans, and humanization, intended as the process by which Indigenous peoples and other categories progressively were granted personhood status. Esmeir defines this process of recognition as “juridicalization”. In the next chapter, I will apply a similar theoretical framework to international human rights law and its constitutive paradox, arguing that it is a legal regime that has been constituted both by exclusiveness (misrecognition or non-recognition) and inclusivity (recognition).
- 14.
“Society should take into account economic efficiency and the requirements of organization and technology. If there are inequalities in income and wealth, and differences in authority and degrees of responsibility, that work to make everyone better off in comparison with the benchmark of equality, why not permit them? […] But since the parties are assumed to be mutually disinterested, their acceptance of these economic and institutional inequalities is only the recognition of the relations of opposition in which men stand in the circumstances of justice” (Rawls, 1971, p. 131).
- 15.
Bell’s interpretation of Rawlsian neutral liberalism can be deduced from this quote: “A political value is one that is not simply drawn from a ‘comprehensive’ moral, religious or philosophical doctrine. More positively, a ‘political’ value is one that can be accepted by all ‘reasonable’ citizens because it is neutral among ‘reasonable’ doctrines. If something is a ‘good, politically speaking’, it makes a positive contribution to the maintenance of a cooperative society of free and equal citizens each with the capacity to form, revise and pursue their own doctrines and the ability to live by principles of justice appropriate for such a society” (Bell, 2002).
- 16.
Kenehan sketches the two main theories of international justice. The approach here described corresponds to what she defines as “the statist position”, whereas liberal statists are mainly concerned with the domestic distribution of justice and contend that the obligations towards outsiders are minimal and they should be activated under extreme circumstances. The second theory, the cosmopolitan justice, on the contrary, contends that statism cannot be extended internationally. In her views, Rawls “duty to assist” could resolve the dilemma between these two different approaches: “when a people falls below the threshold of well-orderedness, then other well-ordered peoples have a positive duty to assist them so as to help them rise out of burderness” (Kenehan, 2015).
- 17.
Indigenous Peoples’ Global Summit on Climate Change, The Anchorage Declaration, 24 april 2009, at https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/smsn/ngo/168.pdf, last accessed February 2021.
- 18.
I am fully aware of the critical debate around the conceptualization of Global North/Global South and why it should be avoided. In this book, I will use it to refer generally to theories, countries and authors that pursue a non-Western/non-Westernized approach to legal theory, or that are at least critical of certain of its aspect and pursue a decolonial approach to theory and practice.
- 19.
Theories of recognition resemble Hegel’s master-slave narrative, which seems somewhat to inform contemporary theories of recognition. In the master-slave dialectic, identities and subjectivities are formed by virtue of mutual recognition: “self-consciousness exists in and for itself when, and by the fact that, it so exists for another; that is, it exists only in being acknowledged”. This narrative seems to suggest that the realization of the self-consciousness of an individual requires the recognition of another self-determining individual, and only through this mutual process a condition for freedom may emerge (Hegel, 1997, p. 178).
- 20.
See generally UNDP website: http://www.hdr.undp.org/, last accessed February 2021.
- 21.
Massimo R. The Indigenous People’s March: What you need to know, 2019, available at https://wtop.com/dc/2019/01/the-indigenous-peoples-march-what-you-need-to-know/, last accessed September 2022.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
PFII. Report of the Secretariat on Indigenous Traditional Knowledge, E/C.19/2007/10, New York, 2007, p. 12.
- 24.
For instance, the PFII makes large use of the term “traditional knowledge”, especially when advocating the urgent need for the institution of a system that truly protect Indigenous rights over their intellectual property: “Regarding the negotiations taking place at the sessions of the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), the Permanent Forum reiterates the urgent need to develop an instrument that responds to the current lack of adequate protection of traditional knowledge and recognizes indigenous peoples as equal stakeholders and the legitimate holders of their knowledge. The Forum calls upon the Intergovernmental Committee to fast-track the negotiations and to use its core budget to fund indigenous peoples’ participation in the deliberation”, PFII, Report on the eighteenth session (22 April–3 May 2019) Economic and Social Council Official Records, 2019 Supplement No. 23, E/2019/43-E/C.19/2019/10.
- 25.
“Indigenous peoples have the right to promote, develop and maintain their institutional structures and their distinctive customs, spirituality, traditions, procedures, practices and, in the cases where they exist, juridical systems or customs, in accordance with international human rights standards”, UNDRIP, Article 34.
- 26.
“In applying the provisions of this Convention:
-
(a) the social, cultural, religious and spiritual values and practices of these peoples shall be recognised and protected, and due account shall be taken of the nature of the problems which face them both as groups and as individuals; […]”, ILO Convention 169, art. 5; “1. In applying national laws and regulations to the peoples concerned, due regard shall be had to their customs or customary laws.
-
2. These peoples shall have the right to retain their own customs and institutions, where these are not incompatible with fundamental rights defined by the national legal system and with internationally recognised human rights. Procedures shall be established, whenever necessary, to resolve conflicts which may arise in the application of this principle” (Idem, Article 8).
-
- 27.
Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 12(1).
- 28.
UNFCCC, Paris Agreement, Article 5.
- 29.
UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010, FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1, Article 12.
- 30.
For instance, note the narrative of international organizations such as the WIPO: “Climate action and sustainability: Indigenous peoples are part of the solution”, at https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2020/01/article_0007.html, last accessed September 2022; the FAO: “Indigenous peoples’ sustainable livelihoods”, at https://www.fao.org/3/aj033e/aj033e02.pdf, last accessed September 2022; or the wording of the former UN Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Victoria Tauli Corpuz: “Through our participation we succeeded in getting some decisions which directly refer to us such as the need to take into account our human rights and our traditional knowledge, among others […] It is my hope that this book will serve as an instrument for indigenous peoples to use in establishing partnerships with all relevant players to achieve the common goals of mitigating climate change and achieving sustainable development”, at https://www.ciel.org/reports/indigenous-peoples-and-traditional-knowledge-in-the-context-of-the-un-framework-convention-on-climate-change-2020-update/, last accessed September 2022.
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
See generally FAO website: http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture/it/, last accessed February 2021.
- 33.
See generally UNESCO website: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/priority-areas/links/, last accessed September 2022.
- 34.
For example, biodiversity conservation and climate adaptation initiatives are being implemented in the Peruvian Andes where Quechua communities are managing the Potato Park aimed at restoring the region potatoes biodiversity, following their customary laws and knowledge. In South Africa, in 2008, traditional livestock keepers adopted the Declaration of Livestock Keepers Rights, which recognizes the importance of biodiversity conservation for the sustainable use of traditional breeds. Traditional knowledge helped to prevent an environmental disaster in 2004, when Moken people in Myanmar recognized the signs of an incoming tsunami and moved their village to a higher ground, avoiding death (see generally: Tobin, 2014, p. 136; ILO, 2017, p. 28).
- 35.
In my views—as I will explain in this section—the use of this concept should be avoided, even though it is widely used by academics and practitioners—and I do not deny in my very early career as a PhD candidate I applied it (however, it was always accompanied by statements about the importance of decolonization), but thanks to further studies, I made the conclusion presented here in this book (e.g. see the book review “Giacomini, 2020b”).
- 36.
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. Backgrounder: Climate change and indigenous peoples, PFII, available at https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/backgrounder%20climate%20change_FINAL.pdf, last accessed February 2021.
- 37.
World Food Programme. Vulnerability Analysis and Map**: A Tentative Methodology. Available at: https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000040024/download/, last accessed February 2021.
- 38.
It is interesting to note that the ILO, in this report, does not mention “colonialism” and colonial practices not even incidentally. In addition, despite mentioning that “Indigenous peoples are not just “victims” or “subjects of development”; they are fundamental partners and crucial agents of change for achieving effective climate action, sustainable development and green growth” (ILO, 2017, p. 23), the ILO decided to put the word “victims” in association to “Indigenous peoples” in the very title of the report. This choice appears peculiar since there is wide consensus about the important role of Indigenous peoples as actors in climate change mitigation and adaptation, as evidenced throughout the book.
- 39.
World Bank website, available at http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climatechange/overview, last accessed September 2022.
- 40.
Over 1.6 billion—including more than 2000 indigenous cultures—are dependent on forests for their survival. See Sustainable Development Goals website, available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/forests, last accessed February 2021.
- 41.
For the IPCC, “Examples that could lead to substantial impact on climate are the boreal-tundra Arctic system (medium confidence) and the Amazon Forest (low confidence). Carbon stored in the terrestrial biosphere (e.g., in peatlands, permafrost, and forests) is susceptible to loss to the atmosphere as a result of climate change, deforestation, and ecosystem degradation (high confidence). Increased tree mortality and associated forest dieback is projected to occur in many regions over the 21st century, due to increased temperatures and drought (medium confidence). Forest dieback poses risks for carbon storage, biodiversity, wood production, water quality, amenity, and economic activity” (Interngovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014, p. 15).
- 42.
See generally Fact Sheet: Indigenous Peoples in the Pacific Region, Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (PFII), n.d., http://www.un.org/en/events/indigenousday/pdf/factsheet_Pacfic_FINAL.pdf, last accessed September 2022.
- 43.
For more information on this case, please consult “US climate resilience toolkit” at https://toolkit.climate.gov/case-studies/relocating-kivalina, last accessed September 2022.
- 44.
See Nady Bay Declaration, 30th July 2019, available at https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/6226356-Nadi-Bay-Declaration-on-Climate-Crisis-2019.html, last accessed March 2021.
- 45.
Independent, Greenland’s ice sheet melting so fast it has caused global sea levels to rise 0.5 mm in just a month, available at https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/greenland-ice-sheet-melting-how-much-b2131500.html, last accessed September 2022.
- 46.
See UN Special Rapporteur Website: http://unsr.vtaulicorpuz.org/site/index.php/en/press-releases/61-clima-change-hrc, last accessed September 2022.
- 47.
This data is available on the website “Climate Accountability”, at https://climateaccountability.org/carbonmajors.html, last accessed September 2022.
- 48.
For further information on this case and the court trials, visit UDAPT website (Union of the People Affected by Texaco-Chevron Operations), at http://texacotoxico.net/#inicio, last accessed March 2021.
- 49.
See Cultural Survival Website, at https://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/samburu-communities-laikipia-kenya-face-threat-eviction, last accessed March 2021.
- 50.
- 51.
For further information, see generally: Chirapaq website, available at: http://chirapaq.org.pe/en/, last accessed September 2022.
- 52.
There are two main inhabited areas in the Palcazu valley, one defined as “lower”—characterized by tropical forests and subtropical transition areas—and the other defined as “higher”—characterized by high altitude subtropical forests (Valadeau, 2012).
- 53.
Ministerio de cultura de Peru – Base de datos pueblos indígenas, at bdpi.cultura.gob.pe.
- 54.
For an account of the critics to the concept of “ecosystem services”, refer to Schröter et al. (2014).
- 55.
The question of avoided deforestation as a commodification of forests for carbon credits was reintroduced, after the initial exclusion from the Clean Development Mechanism in favour of afforestation and reforestation measures, by the Coalition for Rainforest Nations. It posed great emphasis on the economic opportunity deriving from the conservation of forests and their proposal was reiterated by various state and non-state actors such as the World Bank Group and Norway (Stephan, 2012).
- 56.
Instituto del Bien Común, Where Our Ancestors Once Tread: Map** the Historical-Cultural Space of the Yanesha People. A four-part film series, at ethnovisions.net.
- 57.
Ibid.
- 58.
Visit Pro Naturaleza website for information on Yanesha traditional cultivations, at pronaturaleza.org, or watch the documentary Producción de Cacao en Sistemas Agroforestales en Palcazu, Perú, youtube.com for a documentary on the sustainable production of cocoa in Yanesha communities.
- 59.
Peruvian borders in fact enclose a large portion of the amazon forest. More than 60% of the Peruvian territory is covered in forest. Global Forest Watch website https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/PER/, last accessed September 2022.
- 60.
In general, several authors highlight the early constitution in the discourses of the Peruvian elites of a certain hierarchy of the country’s geography on the basis of a double-folded division (Ames, 2010; Orlove, 1993), the colonial segmentation around the “republic of Spaniards” and the “republic of Indians”. In simple terms, certain territories existed in Peru which harboured certain social castes, and this idea was not disputed in its full extent after the independence process from 1821 to 1824.
- 61.
For further info on Alliance for Progress, please visit https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/jfk-in-history/alliance-for-progress#:~:text=Kennedy%20called%20the%20Alliance%20for,on%20March%2013%2C%201961%2C%20to, last accessed March 2021.
- 62.
The politician had previously raised this idea in his writings, mainly in the book The Conquest of Peru by the Peruvians (Belaunde, 1959). Under this logic, the expansion of state presence required the advancement of the country’s road network.
- 63.
By the time legislation on Indigenous communities came in force, the distributions of land in the areas most affected by colonization, especially the central part of the forest (Perené, Villa, Rica, Satipo, Chanchamayo and Oxapampa) and south-central (high Urubamba), were already defined with characteristics that we know today, that is, of Indigenous settlements isolated and confined to minimal space (Chirif & Garcia Hierro, 2007).
- 64.
During his second period, García expressed his thinking on the Amazon through the so-called Artículos del perro del hortelano, published in the daily El Comercio since 2007. In these articles, the president highlights the importance of privatization processes. The president focuses his criticisms on indigenous associations and communities, “unreal owners” unable to invest in their lands and to allow others with greater resources—large private companies—to invest in their territories.
- 65.
The Indigenous peoples’ rights to consultation and FPIC are further analysed in Chap. 5 on participatory rights.
- 66.
See generally: Peruvian Ministry of the Environment website at bosques.gob.pe.
- 67.
Ibid.
- 68.
Please refer back to the Methodology section in Chap. 1.
- 69.
Ibid.
- 70.
See Peruvian Forest Programme in Oxapampa Province, available at MINAM website: bosques.gob.pe.
- 71.
Ibid.
- 72.
Such compensation is yearly around ten Peruvian soles for each hectare of forest.
- 73.
International and national climate litigation cases are progressively being brought by Indigenous peoples before tribunals under these premises. See also: chapter on climate litigation Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACmHR). (The Arctic Athabaskan Council, Petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations of the Rights of Arctic Athabaskan Peoples Resulting from Rapid Arctic Warming and Melting Caused by Emissions of Black Carbon by Canada, 2018; Petition To The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief From Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused By Acts and Omissions of the United States, 2005; Un Human Rights Committee, Petition of Torres Strait Islanders to the United Nations Human Rights Committee Alleging Violations Stemming from Australia’s Inaction on Climate Change, 2019).
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Giacomini, G. (2022). Climate Justice as an Interpretative Approach. In: Indigenous Peoples and Climate Justice. Energy, Climate and the Environment. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09508-5_2
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