Abstract
Chapter 10 concentrates on indigenous-driven education initiatives in Peru and Chile. Capitalising on governments’ purported support for a more active and inclusive citizenship (set against a background of continent-wide concerns about the “social question”), indigenous communities and political organisations asserted their right to have a say about what kind of education they received, and indigenous education became as much about who was delivering and overseeing the teaching, as who was benefitting from it. From the primary source materials available, there is little evidence of indigenous activists in Chile and Peru talking directly to one another about education in the early twentieth century, but they shared the experience of, participated in, and indirectly came together through the spread of Protestantism, as well as the growing leftist labour movement, both of which interconnected with education and were fundamentally transnational phenomena.
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Notes
- 1.
Taken from the pamphlet entitled ‘El problema indígena en Saman’ (1926), cited in Augusto Ramos Zambrano, Ezequiel Urviola y el indigenismo puneño (Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso de la República, 2016), p. 440.
- 2.
Reproduced as ‘El problema indígena’ in Amauta 7 (March 1927), pp. 2–4.
- 3.
La Epoca, 26 April 1911.
- 4.
In de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos, p. 91.
- 5.
Ibid., p. 90.
- 6.
Manuel Llamojha Mitma and Jaymie Patricia Hellman, Now Peru is Mine: The Life and Times of a Campesino Activist (Durham N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016), p. 19.
- 7.
Ibid.
- 8.
Luis E. Valcárcel, ‘Los Nuevos Indios’, Amauta 9 (May 1927), p. 3.
- 9.
For example, Educación del Indio (1908), Educación de la raza indígena (1909), Problemas de la Educación Nacional (1909), La Educación y su Función Social en el Perú en el Problema de la Nacionalización (1913), Contribución a una Legislación Tutelar Indígena (1918).
- 10.
Encinas, Un ensayo de Escuela Nueva en el Perú [1932] (Lima: Imprenta Minerva, 1986), p. 62.
- 11.
Ibid., p. 63.
- 12.
Osmar Gonzáles, translated by Mariana Ortega Breña, ‘The Instituto Indigenista Peruano: A New Place in the State for the Indigenous Debate’, Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 39, No. 5 (September 2012), p. 42.
- 13.
Alberto Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca: Identidad y Utopía en los Andes [1986] (Lima: Editorial Horizonte, 1994), p. 269.
- 14.
One of the most thorough accounts of Urviola’s life is Ramos Zambrano, Ezequiel Urviola y el indigenismo puneño.
- 15.
José Luis Enrique, ‘Indios y indigenistas en el altiplano sur andino peruano, 1895–1930’, in Maya Aguiluz (ed.), Encrucijadas estético-políticas en el espacio andino (Mexico City and La Paz: UNAM/UMSA, 2015).
- 16.
de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos, p. 91.
- 17.
I have not yet uncovered any references to Urviola in Chilean press sources. This is an ongoing research project.
- 18.
News about indigenous political mobilisation in Puno was circulating in many other countries including Mexico, Bolivia, and Chile. For example, through Machete in Mexico (e.g. ‘Los trabajadores del Peru son comunistas a despecho de los vendidos. Manfiesto de la Federacion Indigena Obrera Regional Peruana’, Machete, 27 November 1924, p. 3), and through the pamphlet of the Lima-based feminist-anarchist Angelina Arratia, El Comunismo en América. The latter was disseminated across the continent by Lux, a Chilean anarchist publishing house. See Peter de Shazo, Trabajdores urbanos y sindicatos en Chile, 1902–1927 (Santiago: DIBAM, 2007), and Arturo Vilchis Cedillo, ‘Anarquistas y educación’, p. 40.
- 19.
Dan Collyns, ‘Student in Peru makes history by writing thesis in the Incas’ language’, The Observer, 27 October 2019, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/27/peru-student-roxana-quispe-collantes-thesis-inca-language-quechua.
- 20.
Chuqiwanka received the notification of his appointment as an official delegate (Circular No. 18) from the API on 10 April 1910. Encinas joined at the same time. Archivo Pedro Zulen. Biblioteca Nacional del Perú.
- 21.
Alan Durston, ‘Quechua-Language Government Propaganda in 1920s Peru’, in Alan Durston and Bruce Mannheim (eds), Indigenous Languages, Politics and Authority in Latin America: Historical and Ethnographic Perspectives (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2018), pp. 161–180.
- 22.
Francisco Chuqiwanka Ayulo and Julian Palacios, ‘Alfabeto cientifico keshwa-aymara’, La Escuela Moderna 4–5 (July 1914), pp. 152–157.
- 23.
Luca Citarella, ‘Peru’, in Francisco Chiodi et al., La Educación en América Indígena (Quito: Abya-Yala, 1990), p. 26.
- 24.
‘ortografía indoamericana’, Boletín Titikaka, December 1929, p. 1.
- 25.
Francisco Chuqiwanqa (this time his surname was spelt with a second “q”), ‘Ortografía Indoameriqana’, Boletín Titikaka II: XXV (December 1928), p. 1.
- 26.
Julian Palacios, ‘La Pedagogía de Mayku Qqapa y Mama Ojjllu’, Boletín Titikaka II: XXXII, July 1929, pp. 1–3.
- 27.
Ibid., p. 1.
- 28.
Ibid., p. 2.
- 29.
Ibid., p. 3.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
E.g. José Gabriel Cossio, ‘Etimología quechua de la palabra gaucho’, El Mercurio Peruano, II: 3 (1919), pp. 24–25.
- 32.
Paul Rivet, ‘Bibliographie Americaniste’, Journal de la Societe des Americanistes 12 (1920), pp. 287–331.
- 33.
See Repertorio Americano 1: 23, 15 July 1920.
- 34.
‘De algunas etimologías del bajo collasuyo de los Incas’, Vol. XIII (1915), pp. 295–305.
- 35.
Durston, ‘Quechua-Language Government Propaganda...’.
- 36.
On this essay see Jorge Coronado, ‘Against Indigenismo: José Ángel Escalante, Culture and Andean Modernity’, Latin American Literary Review 36: 71 (2008), pp. 53–74.
- 37.
Durston, ‘Quechua-Language Government Propaganda’.
- 38.
Galván to Giesecke, 15 October 1931. Colección Gisecke AG0061 (Oficio 3938). Archivo Histórico Instituto Riva-Agüero.
- 39.
Villaran, ‘Entrevista’, El Comercio, 21 September 1908.
- 40.
Ferdinand Stahl, In the Land of the Incas (Mountain View, California: Pacific Press, 1920).
- 41.
See Daniel Planc et al., Foundational Missionaries of South American Adventism (Entre Ríos: Editorial Universidad Adventista de la Plata, 2020).
- 42.
Stahl, In the Land of the Incas, p. 102.
- 43.
Ibid.
- 44.
Ibid., p. 126.
- 45.
Gary Land, Historical Dictionary of the Seventh Day Adventists (Oxford: Scarecrow Press, 2005), p. 231.
- 46.
These apparently numbered 113 by 1951. Ibid., p. 87.
- 47.
Gamaliel Churata, ‘Tempestad en los andes por Luis E. Valcárcel’, Boletín Titikaka, January 1928, p. 1.
- 48.
Vilchis Cedillo, ‘Anarquistas y educación…’, p. 31.
- 49.
Churata, ‘Tempestad en los andes…’.
- 50.
Present-day Adventist webpages cast Camacho in a similar light. See Adventist News report of 2004 about local government recognising and honouring Camacho’s pioneering work: https://adventist.news/en/news/peru-local-government-recognizes-adventist-pioneer-educator.
- 51.
Bishop Valentín Ampuero once stated: “It was never God’s intention that Indians go to school and learn. They should dedicate themselves to looking after the sheep and the harvest; if they keep going to school, their harvest will be ruined, and pestilence will kill their sheep.” Cited in Vilchis Cedillo, ‘Anarquistas y educación’, p. 30.
- 52.
Encinas, Un ensayo…, p. 149.
- 53.
For example, J. Fonseca, ‘Protestantismo, indigenismo y el mundo andino (1900–1930)’ in Paulo Drinot and Leo Garafalo (eds.), Más alla de la dominación y la resistencia: Estudios de historia peruana, siglos XVI-XX (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2005), pp. 282–311.
- 54.
J. B. A. Kessler, A Study of the Older Protestant Missions and Churches in Peru and Chile (Oosterbaan & Le Cointre, 1967); Frederick Pike, ‘Church and State in Peru and Chile since 1840: A Study in Contrasts’, The American Historical Review 73: 1 (October 1967), pp. 30–50. Pike highlights the differences between the two countries, but with a focus on the Catholic Church. He recognises that Protestantism became a threat to the Catholic Church in both countries during the early twentieth century.
- 55.
In his PhD thesis, Ruelas states that Camacho attended an Adventist church in Iquique, and that he was later baptised in Santiago. See La escuela rural de Utawilaya y los Adventistas en el Altiplano puneño 1898–1920 (Universidad Nacional del Altiplano, 2016), p. 32 and p.35 respectively, available at http://repositorio.unap.edu.pe.
- 56.
See for example, Edwin Quilla, Eliana Barreda and Wilber Choque, ‘La primera escuela Rural Manuel Z. Camacho’, Los Andes, 31 January 2010. Available at http://www.losandes.com.pe.
- 57.
David Ruelas Vargas, ‘La escuela rural de Utawiyala: Una educación libertadora desde Puno, Peru, 1902’, Revista de Historia de la Educación Latinoamericana 18: 27 (2016), p. 254.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Quilla, Barreda and Choque, ‘La primera escuela…’.
- 60.
Henri Gooren, ‘The Growth and Development of Non-Catholic Churches in Chile’, Review of Religious Research 57: 2 (June 2015), pp. 191–218.
- 61.
For example, Menard and Pavez (eds.), Mapuche y Anglicanos.
- 62.
Coñuepán and Colima, ‘El problema indígena en Chile’.
- 63.
‘Los fines que persigue la Federación Araucana de Loncoche’, El Mercurio, 20 January 1923, pp. 14–15.
- 64.
In Menard and Pavez, ‘Documentos de la Federación Araucana’, p. 93.
- 65.
Crow, The Mapuche in Modern Chile, p. 72.
- 66.
In Menard and Pavez, ‘Documentos de la Federación Araucana’, p. 80.
- 67.
Ibid., pp. 88–89.
- 68.
Ibid., p. 97.
- 69.
Whilst investment in education greatly increased between 1920 and 1930, it focused on urban rather than rural areas. And between 1930 and 1935, investment was slashed almost fourfold. So overall, fewer children in Chile were attending school in 1935 than in 1920. See Austin, The State, Literacy and Popular Education, p. 37.
- 70.
Crow, The Mapuche in Modern Chile, p. 76.
- 71.
Melivilu, like Manquilef, attended the Liceo de Temuco as an adolescent. He qualified as a teacher of maths from the Instituto Pedagógico in Santiago in 1916, but—like Aburto Panguilef—went on to study law. Unlike Aburto Panguilef, he finished his studies, and graduated as a lawyer from the Universidad de Chile in 1924, the same year he was first elected deputy to congress.
- 72.
Huenchullán was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the period 1933–1937 and served on the Comisión Permanente de Educación Pública during this time.
- 73.
‘La asamblea indígena de ayer aprobó la unificación de todas las instituciones aborigines’, El Diario Austral, 2 November 1930, p. 13.
- 74.
‘Una intensificación de la educación indígena’, El Diario Austral, 1 November 1930, p. 9. See my co-authored piece with Allison Ramay, “Indigenous Politics and Education in Early to Mid-Twentieth Century Chile: Foregrounding Women and Transnational Conversations” in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History (December 2021), for an earlier analysis of these developments.
- 75.
Rosemblatt, The Science and Politics of Race, p. 20. New legislation, passed in 1934 as part of Roosevelt’s “New Deal”, “defended the right of indigenous students to preserve their own languages, customs, and religions” and “made it more difficult for […] officials to remove children from their homes and place them in boarding schools.” See Dawson, ‘Histories and Memories of Indian Boarding Schools’, p. 85, and Rosemblatt, The Science and Politics of Race, p. 105.
- 76.
Ibid., p. 20.
- 77.
Larson, ‘Forging the Unlettered Indian…’
- 78.
‘Primer congreso de maestros araucanos dio termino ayer a sus deliberaciones’, El Diario Austral, Temuco, 11 February 1946. All quotations in this paragraph are from the same article.
- 79.
Ibid.
- 80.
They had, for example, been at the Araucanian Congress in Ercilla together in 1926.
- 81.
In Foerster and Montecino, Contiendas, p. 263.
- 82.
Colima was rapporteur for this commission. Manuel Huenchullán was its vice-president, and Adela Huenchullán and Juan Caniuqueo were secretaries.
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Crow, J. (2022). A Persistent Pursuit of Schooling: Indigenous Led Education Projects. In: Itinerant Ideas. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-01952-4_10
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