Abstract
Celso Emilio Ferreiro’s poem “Irmaus” summarizes how the Galician literary (and to some extent political) establishment has understood its relationship to the colonial Other. In its position as a non-hegemonic nation within Spain and Europe, discourses about our Others in Galician fiction have tended to emphasize the fantasy of a common struggle or “similar wounds.” A political reading of contemporary Galician fiction might however suggest that the Galician national identity has been partly built on gendered and racial interpretations of self and Other. I will draw on Orientalism, indigenous and black studies to explore how the internal colonial “wound” (i.e., the fact that Spain has power over Galicia) has been used as an alibi not to critically discuss the representation of the colonial Other in our collective discourse. I will also delve into the current resistance to these forms of discourse formation in order to establish strategic alliances across non-hegemonic nations.
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Notes
- 1.
Ferreiro, Longa noite de pedra. Vigo: Asociación Socio-Pedagóxica Galega, 1997: 167.
- 2.
All direct translations are my own.
- 3.
García Martínez, “Literatura Heterónoma a La Salida Del Franquismo: El Caso Del Primer Nacionalismo Marxista Gallego.” Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies.18.2 (2017): 153–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14636204.2017.1308629.
- 4.
Dhawan, “Post-Colonial Critique of Marxism.” Krisis. Journal for Contemporary Philosophy 2 (2018). https://krisis.eu/post-colonial-critique-of-marxism/
- 5.
Chakrabarty, Provinzialising Europe. Princetown: Princetown University Press, 2009: 228.
- 6.
Otero Pedrayo, O señorito da Reboirana. Vigo: Galaxia, 1960.
- 7.
Rivas, Mohicana. A Coruña: Edicions do Rueiro, 1986.
- 8.
The Manifesto tries to create awareness about the lack of spaces in the Galician literary establishment for writers using the Portuguese standard. While their claims might be relevant, the fact that they equate their situation to that of people who were systematically murdered and deprived of any rights is astounding, to say the least. For a colonial criticism of the concept of “Lusofonía” see Baltrusch, “Galiza e a Lusofonía- Unha tradución entre a miraxe e a utopía.” Galicia 21 A (2009): 4–19.
- 9.
Hooper and Puga Moruxa, Contemporary Galician Cultural Studies: Between the Local and the Global. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2011; Miguelez-Carballeira, Galicia, A Sentimental Nation: Gender, Culture and Politics. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2013.
- 10.
McIvor, “‘I’m Black an’ I’m Proud’: Ruth Negga, Breakfast on Pluto, and Invisible Irelands.” Invisible Culture: An Electronic Journal for Visual Culture 13 (2009). https://www.rochester.edu/in_visible_culture/Issue_13_/mcivor/index.html.
- 11.
Mohanty, Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Longueuil, Québec: Point Par Point, 2007; hooks, Feminist Theory: from Margin to Center. New York; London: Routledge, 2015; Moraga and AnzalduÁ, This Bridge Called My Back Writings by Radical Women of Color. Albany: SUNY Press, 2015.
- 12.
Grosfoguel, “Decolonizing Post-Colonial Studies and Paradigms of Political-Economy: Transmodernity, Decolonial Thinking, and Global Coloniality.” Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World 1.1 (2011). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/21k6t3fq.
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Mohanty, Feminism without Borders.
- 14.
Segato, La escritura en el cuerpo de las mujeres asesinadas en Ciudad JuÁrez: Territorio, soberanía y crímenes de segundo estado. Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina: Tinta Limón Ediciones, 2013.
- 15.
Bhabha, The Location of Culture. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
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Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
- 17.
Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.
- 18.
Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: x.
- 19.
Cacheiro Varela, América na poesía galega. A Coruña, Spain: Deputación Provincial de A Coruña, 1992:13.
- 20.
See for example Dizon and Rodríguez Cruceiro: Spanish Galicia at Some Crossroads in Philippine History and Culture, 1521–1898 (Angeles City, Philippines: Center for Kapampangan Studies, Centro Gallego de Filipinas, 2011) for a discussion of the participation of Galicians in the colonization of the Philippines from Magellan’s first colonial expedition onwards.
- 21.
Alonso Álvarez, Comercio colonial y crisis del Antiguo Régimen en Galicia, 1778–1818. Santiago de Compostela: Xunta de Galicia. Consellería da Presidencia, 1986.
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Calvo, “Vigo releva a Sevilla como principal centro de esclavitud entre 1660 y 1668.” Faro De Vigo, 2 May, 2007.
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Bugallal, “Próceres y Negreros.” La Opinión, 24 October, 2016.
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Cacheiro Varela, América na poesía galega.
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Miranda, Barreiro “Galician Slaves in Cuba.” Research Journal. David Miranda Barreiro (blog), 20 October, 2016. https://davidmirandabarreiro.wordpress.com/2016/10/20/galician-slaves-in-cuba/.
- 26.
Romero, “The Other Galicia: Constructions of National Identity through Absence.” In Contemporary Galician Cultural Studies: Between the Local and the Global, eds. Kirsty Hooper and Manuel Puga Moruxa, 104–24. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2011.
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Cacheiro Varela, América na poesía galega: 13.
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Ruiz, “El pueblo de Galicia donde veranean las mayores fortunas del mundo.” El Mundo, 3 August, 2017. https://www.elmundo.es/viajes/espana/2017/08/03/588b4a2422601d5f148b458c.html.
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Naranjo Orovio, “Los trabajos y los días: colonos gallegos en Cuba en el siglo XIX.” SÉMATA 11 (1999): 191–215.
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“Zara, Next, Mango Slammed for Leaving Workers Without Wages in Turkish Factory.” Clean Clothes Campaign, 25 September, 2017. https://cleanclothes.org/news/2017/09/25/zara-next-mango-slammed-for-leaving-workers-without-wages
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“Construír Galiza Con Ilusión Contigo.” BNG, 2016. https://www.bng.gal/media/bnggaliza/files/2016/09/12/programa_electoral_galegas_2016.pdf.
- 32.
As a general note I could mention that “priority countries” in the Galician Development Aid Strategy are those with whom Galicia’s civil society is supposed to have had a history of long-term cooperation (see all details here: https://cooperacion.xunta.gal/gl/presentacion). While countries such as Kurdistan, the Sahara, and India have been excluded, Mozambique and others are in because of business interests. The inclusion of companies as cooperation agents in the mentioned strategy was and still is rejected by the NGO sector (see, e.g., the position of the Galician NGO Federation here https://galiciasolidaria.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/Consenso-Empresa-CGONGD.pdf), though this reasoned opposition has not yielded any change in the government’s policies.
- 33.
Tarrío Varela, “Rosalía, Curros, Pondal: Literatura e Colonización.” In Actas do Congreso Internacional de Estudios sobre Rosalía de Castro e o seu tempo 3. Santiago de Compostela: Univ. de Santiago de Compostela, 1986: 395–401.
- 34.
Tarrío Varela, “Rosalía, Curros, Pondal: Literatura e Colonización”: 396.
- 35.
Said, Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 2003: 157.
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Risco, La historia de Oriente contada con sencillez. CÁdiz: Escelicer, 1955: 10.
- 37.
Risco, La historia de Oriente contada con sencillez: 12.
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Said, Orientalism: 1–2.
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Fundación Vicente Risco. Quen é Risco? Allariz: Fundación Vicente Risco, 2013.
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Risco, Teoría do nacionalismo galego. Ourense: La Región, 1920: 3.
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Risco, La historia de Oriente contada con sencillez: 11.
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Sánchez Iglesias, Caderno do Nilo. Vigo: Xerais, 2013.
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Sánchez Iglesias, Caderno do Nilo: 7.
- 44.
Sánchez Iglesias, Caderno do Nilo: 9.
- 45.
Said, Orientalism: 20.
- 46.
Said, Orientalism: 20–21.
- 47.
Said, Orientalism: 27.
- 48.
Said, Orientalism: 158.
- 49.
Said, Orientalism: 36.
- 50.
Gómez SÁnchez and Queixas Zas, Historia xeral da literatura galega. Vigo: Edicións a Nosa Terra, 2001: 238–248.
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Cacheiro Varela, Os escritores galegos e Iberoamérica. Vigo: Departamento de Filoloxía Española, 2000.
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Cacheiro Varela, Os escritores galegos e Iberoamérica: 48.
- 53.
Cacheiro Varela, Os escritores galegos e Iberoamérica: 49.
- 54.
Mohanty, Feminism without Borders: 243.
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Cacheiro Varela, Os escritores galegos e Iberoamérica: 83.
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González-Allende, Hombres en movimiento: masculinidades españolas en los exilios y emigraciones, 1939–1999. Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2018.
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González-Allende, Hombres en movimiento: 4.
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Cacheiro Varela, Os escritores galegos e Iberoamérica: 101.
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Cacheiro Varela, Os escritores galegos e Iberoamérica: 104.
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Boulukos, George. The Grateful Slave: the Emergence of Race in Eighteenth-Century British and American Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
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Cacheiro Varela, Os escritores galegos e Iberoamérica: 104.
- 62.
Freixanes, A Cidade dos Césares. Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia, 1993.
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Freixanes, A Cidade dos Césares: 137.
- 64.
Miguelez-Carballeira, A Companion to Galician Culture. Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2014.
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Cajaraville Héctor. Nova Nursia. Edicións Xerais de Galicia, 2018.
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Jackson, “The Private Lives of Empire: Emotion, Intimacy, and Colonial Rule.” Itinerario 42.1 (2018): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0165115318000049.
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Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Duke: Duke Univ. Press, 2006.
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Bringas, “Oscuros objetos de deseo: Construcciones culturales del cuerpo femenino negro en el discurso publicitario.” In Violencias (in)Visibles: Intervenciones Feministas Frente a La Violencia Patriarcal, ed. Belén Martín Lucas. Barcelona: Icaria, 2010: 115–38.
- 70.
The poem, included in Cacheiro’s 1992 anthology América na poesía galega, is part of Delgado Gurriarán’s “Noiturno da noiva jaracha,” a section in his collection Galicia infinda (1963). The whole section can be found here http://www.adelal.com/nOproblemO/adelal/florencio/mexicanos.html. In 2021, the Real Academia da Lingua Galega [Royal Academy of the Galician Language] decided to dedicate their Día das Letras Galegas [Day of Galician Literature] to this author, quoting the fact that he was in exile in Mexico as one of the reasons to choose him, regardless of the way he has depicted the local population of the country (https://academia.gal/-/as-letras-galegas-2022-homenaxear-c3-a1n-a-florencio-delgado-gurriar-c3-a1n).
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Cacheiro Varela, América na poesía galega: 55.
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Capelán, “Da saudade revertida: a realidade americana na obra de Avilés de Taramancos.” Novos boletíns da Real Academia Galega 364 (2003): 41–137.
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Avilés de Taramancos, Nova crónica das Indias. Vigo: Ir Indo, 1989.
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Cacheiro Varela, América na poesía galega: 95. Avilés de Taramanco’s poem was originally published in 1985 in Contos caucanos.
- 75.
Cacheiro Varela, América na poesía galega: 74. Ferreiro’s poem was originally written in 68 and published in Terra de ningures (1969).
- 76.
Cacheiro Varela, América na poesía galega: 38.
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Espinosa Miñoso, “12 de octubre: Conmemorar la violación originaria.” Pan y Rosas (suplemento), September, 2009.
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López Silva, ChÁmame señora, pero trÁtame coma a nn señor: Memoria persoal do machismo na cultura. Vigo: Editorial Galaxia, 2018.
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López Silva, Non quero ser Doris Day. A Coruña: Biblos, 2006.
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López Silva, Non quero ser Doris Day: 41.
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López Silva, Non quero ser Doris Day: 44.
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López Silva, Non quero ser Doris Day: 61.
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Macfie, Alexander L. Orientalism: Seminar Studies in History. London: Longman, 2002: 87.
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Kempadoo, Kamala. Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, Race, and Sexual Labor. Routledge, 2004.
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Shepard, “‘Something Notably Erotic’: Politics, ‘Arab Men,’ and Sexual Revolution in Post-Decolonization France, 1962–1974.” The Journal of Modern History 84.1 (2012): 80–115. https://doi.org/10.1086/663172.
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López Silva, Non quero ser Doris Day: 108.
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Vasallo, Pensamiento monógamo, terror poliamoroso. Madrid: La Oveja Roja, 2019: 147–150.
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López Silva, Memoria de cidades sen luz. Vigo: Galaxia, 2009.
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López Silva, Memoria da cidade sen luz: 105.
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Bringas López, “Oscuros objetos de deseo: Construcciones culturales del cuerpo femenino negro en el discurso publicitario.” In Violencias (in)Visibles: Intervenciones Feministas Frente a La Violencia Patriarcal, ed. Belén Martín Lucas. Barcelona: Icaria, 2010: 115–38.
- 92.
Ríos, Luns. Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia, 2017.
- 93.
López Silva, Maternosofía ou o embarazo da escritora primípara. Vigo: Galaxia, 2014.
- 94.
Sánchez Aríns, A Sega (blog), April 2014. http://www.asega-critica.net/2014/04/maternosofia-suficiencia-racional-vs.html.
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QueizÁn, Vivir a galope. Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia, S.A., 2018.
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Queizán, Vivir a galope: 226.
- 97.
Castaño, O libro da egoísta. Galaxia, 2003: 53.
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Tseng, Arroz tres delicias: sexo, raza y género. Barcelona: Plan B (Ediciones B), 2019.
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Cabaleiro, As Ramonas. Editorial Galaxia, 2018.
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Cabaleiro, As Ramonas: 122.
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Agüero, “Informe sobre la situación del Pueblo Gitano en España.” Pretendemos gitanizar el mundo/Plataforma Ciudadana Rosa Cortés por la Memoria Gitana/Camelamos, 2020.
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OmgbÁ, Calella sen saída: o dilema dun inmigrante. Vigo: Galaxia, 2005.
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Fayé, Ser Modou. A Coruña: ASPG, 2017.
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Shawki Aziz, Contos ao carón da lareira. Vigo: Nova Galicia, 2007.
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Shawki Aziz, Fundación Libélula. Vigo: Edicions Xerais de Galicia, 2011.
- 106.
Fayé was one of two Senegalese migrants living in A Coruña who were chosen in the Bloque Nacionalista Galego’s [Galician Nationalist Block] open assemblies to run in the municipal elections of A Coruña. The Spanish electoral law did not allow them to run as they were not Spanish citizens.
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Bravo, “Limiar.” In Cheikh Fayé Ser Modou, 9–12. A Coruña: ASPG, 2017.
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Fayé, Ser Modou: 96.
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“Racismo e xenofobia en Galicia.” SOS Racismo, 2018. https://sosracismo.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/RESUMO-INFORME-OID-2018-GALICIA.pdf.
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Santiago, “Afrogalegas: ‘Estamos Orgullosas De Ser Negras.’” El Salto, 30 May, 2018. https://www.elsaltodiario.com/racismo/afrogalegas-estamos-orgullosas-ser-negras.
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Reimóndez, M. (2022). Semellantes as feridas? Feminist De-colonial Readings of Galician Fiction. In: Castro, O., Baena, D., López, M.A.R., Sánchez Moreiras, M. (eds) Gender, Displacement, and Cultural Networks of Galicia. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98861-6_5
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