Human Rights Diplomacy of Muslim States at Multilateral Forums

Lakatos, István

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-97095-6_7

István Lakatos²

225 Accesses

Abstract

States discussed in this chapter are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). The first part of the chapter briefly introduces the history of the Muslim world, providing an adequate contextual framework to understand the development of Islamic thoughts regarding the role of the individual in society and their relationship to the main values behind the modern notion of human rights. Given the importance of religion in the Muslim world, this section also introduces the sources of Islamic law to show the complex nature of the Shari’a, and the different and frequently conflicting interpretations of the Quran and their compatibility with international human rights standards. The chapter then demonstrates how this intellectual heritage and tradition have affected the human rights diplomacy of Muslim states carried out in the most important multilateral forums, starting with the regional bodies like the OIC and the Arab League, followed by global forums, like the UNGA or the UN Human Rights Council. The chapter introduces the work of Muslim delegations during the three 2017 sessions of the HRC, but in certain cases earlier or later examples are mentioned to better understand the priorities of this group of countries.

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Notes

1.
OIC Member State countries: •Islamic Republic of Afghanistan •Republic of Albania •People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria •Republic of Azerbaijan •Kingdom of Bahrain •People’s Republic of Bangladesh •Republic of Benin •Brunei-Darussalam •Burkina-Faso •Republic Of Cameroon •Republic of Chad •Union of The Comoros •Republic of Cote D'ivoire •Republic of Djibouti •Arab Republic of Egypt •Republic of Gabon •Republic of The Gambia •Republic of Guinea •Republic of Guinea-Bissau •Republic of Guyana •Republic of Indonesia •Islamic Republic of Iran •Republic of Iraq• Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan •Republic of Kazakhstan •State of Kuwait •Kyrgyz Republic •Republic of Lebanon •Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya •Malaysia •Republic of Maldives •Republic of Mali •Islamic Republic of Mauritania •Kingdom of Morocco •Republic of Mozambique •Republic of Niger •Federal Republic of Nigeria •Sultanate of Oman •Islamic Republic of Pakistan •State of Palestine •State of Qatar •Kingdom of Saudi Arabia •Republic of Senegal •Republic of Sierra Leone •Republic of Somalia •Republic of The Sudan •Republic of Suriname •Syrian Arab Republic •Republic of Tajikistan •Republic of Togo •Republic of Tunisia •Republic Of Turkey •Republic of Turkmenistan •Republic of Uganda •UAE •Republic of Uzbekistan •Republic of Yemen Source: http://www.oicexchanges.org/members/oic-member-state-countries.
2.
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3.
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4.
Lewis, B. (2003). The Crisis of Islam, Holy War and Unholy Terror. New York, USA: Random House Trade Paperbacks. pp. 4–5.
5.
Ibid., p. 6.
6.
Ibid., p. 10.
7.
Lapidus, I. M. (2002). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 815.
8.
BBC. (2011). Prophet Muhammad. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/muhammad_1.shtml.
9.
A politico-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire ummah (community).
10.
Lewis, B. (2003). The Crisis of Islam, Holy War and Unholy Terror. New York, USA: Random House Trade Paperbacks. p. 7.
11.
Kissinger, H. (2014). World Order. London, UK: Penguin Press. p. 104.
12.
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13.
Khatab, S. & Bouma, G. D. (2007). Democracy in Islam. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. p. 33.
14.
Sachedina, A. (2009). Islam and the Challenge of Human Rights. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 193.
15.
Ibid., p. 203.
16.
Alikhani, A. A. (2016). Fundamentals of Islam in International Relations. In: D. Abdelkader, N. Manabilang Adiong, & R. Maurielle (eds), Islam and International Relations, Contributions to Theory and Practice. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 9.
17.
Ibid., p. 11.
18.
Ibid., pp. 12–14.
19.
Heck, G. W. (2007). When Worlds Collide: Exploring the Ideological Foundations of the Clash of Civilizations. Lantham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. p. 34.
20.
History of the World. (n.d.). History of Islam. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=509&HistoryID=aa56&gtrack=pthc.
21.
Fukuyama, F. (2011). The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 191.
22.
Ibid., p. 190.
23.
Ibid., p. 192.
24.
Kissinger, H. (2014). World Order. London, UK: Penguin Press. pp. 108–110.
25.
Ibid., p. 110.
26.
Ibid., p. 112.
27.
Milton-Edwards, B. (2018). Contemporary Politics in the Middle East. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. p. 21.
28.
Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Islamic History from 1683 to the Present: Reform, Dependency, and Recovery. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world/Islamic-history-from-1683-to-the-present-reform-dependency-and-recovery.
29.
Kissinger, H. (2014). World Order. London, UK: Penguin Press. p. 112.
30.
Al-Rodhan, N. (n.d.). The Arab-Islamic World and Global Geopolitics: Endogenous vs. Exogenous Factors. In: The Age of Perplexity: Rethinking the World We Knew. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/articles/the-arab-islamic-world-and-global-geopolitics-endogenous-vs-exogenous-factors/.
31.
Esposito, J. L. (n.d.). Contemporary Islam: Challenges and Opportunities: Reformation or Revolution. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/book/islam-9780195107999/islam-9780195107999-chapter-15.
32.
Esposito, J. L., Sonn, T. & Voll, J. O. (Eds). (2016). Islam and Democracy After the Arab Spring. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 12.
33.
Ibid., p. 2.
34.
Al-Rodhan, N. (n.d.). The Arab-Islamic World and Global Geopolitics: Endogenous vs. Exogenous Factors. In: The Age of Perplexity: Rethinking the World We Knew, Chapter 3. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/articles/the-arab-islamic-world-and-global-geopolitics-endogenous-vs-exogenous-factors/.
35.
Esposito, J. L., Sonn, T. & Voll, J. O. (Eds) (2016). Islam and Democracy After the Arab Spring. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 10.
36.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 33–34.
37.
Khatab, S. & Bouma, G. D. (2007). Democracy in Islam. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. p. 26.
38.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 35.
39.
Sachedina, A. (2010). Islam and the Challenge of Human Rights. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scholarship Online. p. 30.
40.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 68.
41.
Mayer, A. E. (1999). Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 9.
42.
Ibid., pp. 9–10.
43.
An-Na’im, A. A. (2009). Islam and the Secular State. Harvard University Press. p. 115.
44.
Mayer, A. E. (1999). Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 1.
45.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 21.
46.
Ibid., p. 12.
47.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 13.
48.
Ibid., p. 13.
49.
Tibi, B. (1994). Islamic Law/Shari’a, Human Rights, Universal Morality and International Relations. Human Rights Quarterly, 16:286–287.
50.
Ibid., p. 297.
51.
Mayer, A. E. (1999). Islam and Human Rights. Tradition and Politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 192.
52.
Emon, A. M., Ellis, M. S. & Glahn, B. (2012). From ‘Common Ground’ to ‘Clearing Ground’: A Model for Engagement in the 21st Century. In: A. M. Emon, M. S. Ellis, & B. Glahn (eds), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law: Searching for Common Ground? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 2–4.
53.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 5–6.
54.
Ibid., pp. 5–6.
55.
Tibi, B. (1994). Islamic Law/Shari’a, Human Rights, Universal Morality and International Relations. Human Rights Quarterly, 16:298.
56.
Khatab, S. & Bouma, G. D. (2007). Democracy in Islam. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. p. 3.
57.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 14.
58.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 72.
59.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 15.
60.
Sachedina, A. (2009). Islam and the Challenge of Human Rights. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 151.
61.
Afshari, R. (1994). An Essay on Islamic Cultural Relativism in the Discourse of Human Rights. Human Rights Quarterly, 16:236, 249.
62.
An-Na’im, A. A. (2015). Islam and Human Rights. In: J. Witte & M. C. Green, Religion and Human Rights: An Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scholarship Online. p. 58.
63.
Ibid.
64.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 29.
65.
Ibid., p. 64.
66.
Tibi, B. (1994). Islamic Law/Shari’a, Human Rights, Universal Morality and International Relations. Human Rights Quarterly, 16:279.
67.
An-Na’im, A. A. (2015). Islam and Human Rights. In: J. Witte & M. C. Green, Religion and Human Rights: An Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scholarship Online. p. 63.
68.
Ibid., p. 67.
69.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 5.
70.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 65.
71.
An-Na’im, A. A. (2015). Islam and Human Rights. In: J. Witte & M. C. Green, Religion and Human Rights: An Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scholarship Online. p. 65.
72.
Sachedina, A. (2010). Islam and the Challenge of Human Rights. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scholarship Online. p. 12.
73.
Esposito, J. L., Sonn, T. & Voll, J. O. (eds). (2016). Islam and Democracy After the Arab Spring. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 8.
74.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 92.
75.
Hausler, K., Kállai, P., Kortvelyesi, Zs., Majtényi, B., Sosa, L., Timmer, A., Killander, M., Ho Tu Nam, N., Okeowo, A., Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law: Different Organizations, Different Conceptions? Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. pp. 99–100.
76.
Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Engagement with Regional Multilateral Organizations. Case Study: OIC and League of Arab States. Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. pp. 7–8.
77.
Hausler, K., Kállai, P., Kortvelyesi, Zs., Majtényi, B., Sosa, L., Timmer, A., Killander, M., Ho Tu Nam, N., Okeowo, A., Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law: Different Organizations, Different Conceptions? Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. p. 110.
78.
Ibid., p. 100.
79.
Ibid., pp. 113–114.
80.
Gunn, J., & Lagresa, A. (2016). Engagement with Regional Multilateral Organizations. Case Study: OIC and League of Arab States. Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies, European Commission. p. 8.
81.
Ibid., p. 11.
82.
O’Sullivan, D. (1998). The History of Human Rights Across the Regions: Universalism vs Cultural Relativism. The International Journal of Human Rights, 2(3):22, 32.
83.
Ibid., p. 33.
84.
Hausler, K., Kállai, P., Kortvelyesi, Zs., Majtényi, B., Sosa, L., Timmer, A., Killander, M., Ho Tu Nam, N., Okeowo, A., Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law: Different Organizations, Different Conceptions? Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. pp. 123–124.
85.
Ibid., p. 118.
86.
Ibid., p. 8.
87.
Emon, A. M., Ellis, M. S. & Glahn, B. (2012). From ‘Common Ground’ to ‘Clearing Ground’: A Model for Engagement in the 21st Century. In: A. M. Emon, M. S. Ellis, & B. Glahn (eds), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law: Searching for Common Ground? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 48.
88.
Hausler, K., Kállai, P., Kortvelyesi, Zs., Majtényi, B., Sosa, L., Timmer, A., Killander, M., Ho Tu Nam, N., Okeowo, A., Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law: Different Organizations, Different Conceptions? Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. p. 124.
89.
Magliveras, K. & Naldi, G. (2016). The Arab Court of Human Rights: A Study in Impotence. https://www.persee.fr/doc/rqdi_0828-9999_2016_num_29_2_2248.
90.
Ibid., p. 141.
91.
Ibid., p. 138.
92.
Emon, A. M., Ellis, M. S. & Glahn, B. (2012). From ‘Common Ground’ to ‘Clearing Ground’: A Model for Engagement in the 21st Century. In: A. M. Emon, M. S. Ellis, & B. Glahn (eds), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law: Searching for Common Ground? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 19.
93.
Petersen, M. J. (2012). Islamic or Universal Human Rights? Danish Institute for International Studies. http://pure.diis.dk/ws/files/66504/RP2012_03_Islamic_human_rights_web.pdf.
94.
Emon, A. M., Ellis, M. S. & Glahn, B. (2012). From ‘Common Ground’ to ‘Clearing Ground’: A Model for Engagement in the 21st Century. In: A. M. Emon, M. S. Ellis, & B. Glahn (eds), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law: Searching for Common Ground? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 15–16.
95.
Hausler, K., Kállai, P., Kortvelyesi, Zs., Majtényi, B., Sosa, L., Timmer, A., Killander, M., Ho Tu Nam, N., Okeowo, A., Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law: Different Organizations, Different Conceptions? Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. p. 138.
96.
Ibid., p. 142.
97.
Ekmeleddin Ihsanoǧlu as Secretary-General took several initiatives to reform the OIC's agenda and strategies in various fields, with the motto: “modernization and moderation”. He initiated schemes of action with regard to promotion of understanding, tolerance, principles of human rights, democracy, and establishment of dialogue between the OIC's member states and with other countries and communities of the world.
98.
Petersen, M. J. (2012). Islamic or Universal Human Rights? Danish Institute for International Studies. pp. 10–11. http://pure.diis.dk/ws/files/66504/RP2012_03_Islamic_human_rights_web.pdf.
99.
Hausler, K., Kállai, P., Kortvelyesi, Zs., Majtényi, B., Sosa, L., Timmer, A., Killander, M., Ho Tu Nam, N., Okeowo, A., Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law: Different Organizations, Different Conceptions? Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. p. 143.
100.
Ibid., p. 144.
101.
Olayemi, A. A. M., Alabi, A. M. H. & Buang, A. H. (2015). Islamic Human Rights Law: A Critical Evaluation of UIDHR and CDHRI in Context of UDHR. Journal of Islam, Law and Judiciary, 1(3):30–31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281120061_Islamic_Human_Rights_Law_A_Critical_Evaluation_of_UIDHR_CDHRI_In_Context_Of_UDHR.
102.
O’Sullivan, D. (1998). The History of Human Rights Across the Regions: Universalism vs Cultural Relativism. The International Journal of Human Rights, 2(3):34.
103.
Emon, A. M., Ellis, M. S. & Glahn, B. (2012). From ‘Common Ground’ to ‘Clearing Ground’: A Model for Engagement in the 21st Century. In: A. M. Emon, M. S. Ellis, & B. Glahn (eds), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law: Searching for Common Ground? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 113.
104.
Olayemi, A. A. M., Alabi, A. M. H. & Buang, A. H. (2015). Islamic Human Rights Law: A Critical Evaluation of UIDHR and CDHRI in Context of UDHR. Journal of Islam, Law and Judiciary, 1(3):29–32.
105.
van Hüllen, V. (2015). Just Leave Us Alone: The Arab League and Human Rights, p. 146. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/159465650.pdf.
106.
International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU). (2008). Islamic Law vs Human Rights. https://iheu.org/islamic-law-vs-human-rights/.
107.
Baderin, M. A. (2005). International Human Rights and Islamic Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 228.
108.
International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU). (2008). Islamic Law vs Human Rights. https://iheu.org/islamic-law-vs-human-rights/.
109.
Emon, A. M., Ellis, M. S. & Glahn, B. (2012). From ‘Common Ground’ to ‘Clearing Ground’: A Model for Engagement in the 21st Century. In: A. M. Emon, M. S. Ellis, & B. Glahn (eds), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law: Searching for Common Ground? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 113–114.
110.
Ibid., p. 114.
111.
International Commission of Jurists. (2003). Arab Charter on Human Rights Must Meet International Standards. https://www.icj.org/arab-charter-on-human-rights-must-meet-international-standards/.
112.
Zerrougui, L. (2008). The Arab Charter on Human Rights. Lecture Given as Part of the High-Level Panel on the 60th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at the Alumni Conference on the 25th Anniversary of the Human Rights Centre at the University of Essex, 4–6 July 2008, pp. 8–9. http://projects.essex.ac.uk/ehrr/v7n2/zerrougui.pdf.
113.
Ibid., p. 10.
114.
Hausler, K., Kállai, P., Kortvelyesi, Zs., Majtényi, B., Sosa, L., Timmer, A., Killander, M., Ho Tu Nam, N., Okeowo, A., Gunn, J. & Lagresa, A. (2016). Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law: Different Organizations, Different Conceptions? Frame, Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies. European Commission. pp. 127–128.
115.
Zerrougui, L. (2008). The Arab Charter on Human Rights. Lecture Given as Part of the High-Level Panel on the 60th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at the Alumni Conference on the 25th Anniversary of the Human Rights Centre at the University of Essex, 4–6 July 2008, p. 13.
116.
Fadel, M. (2014). Is There a Future for an Arab Human Rights Mechanism? Not Without Democracy. Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, 32(1):5–6.
117.
Ibid., pp. 5–7.
118.
The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of 50 countries; Poland signed on 15 October 1945. There were 51 founding members in 1945. http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml.
119.
The text of the resolution. https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253.
120.
The following 33 states supported the UNGA resolution on the Partition Plan: Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Byelorussian S.S.R., Canada, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Iceland, Liberia, Luxemburg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Sweden, Ukrainian S.S.R., Union of South Africa, USA, USSR, Uruguay, and Venezuela. https://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/un%20general%20assembly%20resolution%20181.aspx.
121.
Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). United Nations Resolution 181. https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Resolution-181.
122.
Yakobson, A. & Rubinstein, A. (2010). Israel and the Family of Nations: The Jewish Nation-State and Human Rights. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. p. 2.
123.
Ibid., pp. 15–16.
124.
Yakobson, A. & Rubinstein, A. (2010). Israel and the Family of Nations: The Jewish Nation-State and Human Rights. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. pp. 17–19.
125.
Ibid., pp. 28–33.
126.
Not surprisingly there were riots against the Jews in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and other Arab states after the adoption of the Partition Plan.
127.
Yakobson, A. & Rubinstein, A. (2010). Israel and the Family of Nations: The Jewish Nation-State and Human Rights. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. pp. 44–52.
128.
Ibid., p. 21.
129.
If we do not count the Genocide Convention, which was adopted on 9 December 1948, one day before the adoption of the UDHR.
130.
Ayton-Shenker, D. (1995). The Challenge of Human Rights and Cultural Diversity. United Nations Background Note, DPI/1627/HR-March, p. 2.
131.
Equal Rights Trust. (2016). Global Citizenship Commission, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the 21st Century. A Living Document in a changing World. NYU Global Institute for Advanced Study. https://www.equalrightstrust.org/ertdocumentbank/Brown-Universal-Declaration-Human-Rights-21C.pdf.
132.
Lakatos, I. (2018). Thoughts on Universalism Versus Cultural Relativism, with Special Attention to Women’s Rights. Pécs Journal of International and European Law, I:6, 8.
133.
Burke, R. (2010). Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 142.
134.
Lakatos, I. (2018). Thoughts on Universalism Versus Cultural Relativism, with Special Attention to Women’s Rights. Pécs Journal of International and European Law, I:9.
135.
Morsink, J. (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting and Intent. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 11.
136.
Ibid., p. 24.
137.
Waltz, S. E. (2004). Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Muslim States. Human Rights Quarterly, 26:815–817.
138.
An-Na’im, A. A. (n.d.). The Position of Islamic States Regarding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, pp. 185–186. http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/publications/PU00010805.pdf.
139.
Burke, B. (2010). Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2.
140.
Ibid., p. 7.
141.
Ibid., pp. 61–69.
142.
Ibid., p. 75.
143.
Ibid., p. 90.
144.
Ibid., p. 126.
145.
Ibid., pp. 131–137.
146.
Ibid., pp. 140–141.
147.
Ibid., p. 148.
148.
UNGA Resolution A/73/L.5 on Chair of the G 77 for 2019. http://undocs.org/A/73/L.5.
149.
Universal Rights Group. (2017). The Human Rights Council in 2017. Leadership, Resolve and Cooperation at the UN’s Main Human Rights Body. pp. 38–39, 44–45, 50–51, 55. https://www.universal-rights.org/urg-policy-reports/human-rights-council-2017/.
150.
Al Hussein, Z. R. (2017). Denial of Access and Lack of Cooperation with UN Bodies Will Not Diminish Scrutiny of a State’s Human Rights Record. Human Rights Council 35th session: Opening Statement by Zeid Ra’ad United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/denial-access-and-lack-cooperation-un-bodies-will-not-diminish-scrutiny-states-human.
151.
Universal Rights Group. (2017). The March of Universality? Religion-Based Reservations to the Core UN Treaties and What They Tell Us About Human Rights and Universality in the Twenty-First Century. Policy Report May 2017, p. 2.
152.
Ibid., p. 3.
153.
Ibid., pp. 20–25.
154.
UN Human Rights Committee. (1994). CCPR General Comment No. 24: Issues Relating to Reservations Made upon Ratification or Accession to the Covenant or the Optional Protocols thereto, or in Relation to Declarations under Article 41 of the Covenant, 4 November 994, CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.6. https://www.refworld.org/docid/453883fc11.html.
155.
Universal Rights Group. (2017). The March of Universality? Religion-Based Reservations to the Core UN Treaties and What They Tell Us About Human Rights and Universality in the Twenty-First Century. Policy Report May 2017. p. 41.
156.
Cali, B. (2018). Influence of the ICCPR in the Middle East. In: D. Moeckli, H. Keller, & C. Heri, The Human Rights Covenants at 50: Their Past, Present, and Future. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 128.
157.
Ibid., p. 130.
158.
Ibid., p. 138.
159.
Ibid., pp. 147–148.
160.
The following 13 OIC member states were sitting on the HRC in 2017: Albania from the EEG; Bangladesh, Indonesia, Qatar, Kyrgyzstan, UAE, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia from the Asia–Pacific Group; and Nigeria, Cote d’Ivoire, Togo, Egypt, and Tunisia from the African Group.
161.
Adam, A. (2017). Perspectives on a decade of Asian Foreign Policy at the UN Human Rights Council. Forum-Asia Working Paper Series No. 2. p. 14. https://www.forum-asia.org/?p=24828.
162.
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165.
Ibid., p. 693.
166.
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167.
Ibid., p. 10.
168.
Ibid., p. 11.
169.
Ibid.
170.
Ibid., p. 12.
171.
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175.
Ibid.
176.
Ibid.
177.
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178.
Ibid., pp. 42–56.
179.
According to the statement delivered on 28 of March 2014, by the Permanent Representative of Egypt on behalf of the LMG, the following states belonged to the LMG: Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, UAE, and Venezuela.
180.
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182.
Ibid., pp. 59–60.
183.
Ibid., p. 79.
184.
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186.
Ibid., pp. 47–48.
187.
Ibid., p. 167.
188.
Ibid., pp. 13–14.
189.
Ibid., p. 35.
190.
Ibid., pp. 54–63.
191.
Ibid., pp. 38–42.
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197.
Ibid.
198.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 64.
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200.
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201.
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202.
Monshipouri, M. (1998). Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 65.
203.
An-Na’im, A. A. (2015). Islam and Human Rights. In: J. Witte & M. C. Green, Religion and Human Rights: An Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scholarship Online. p. 65.
204.
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Lakatos, I. (2022). Human Rights Diplomacy of Muslim States at Multilateral Forums. In: Comparative Human Rights Diplomacy . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97095-6_7

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97095-6_7
Published: 12 April 2022
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