Abstract
This chapter engages with the materialities and aesthetics of what I call post-communist places. Post-communist places are transitory public sites in cities where buildings and townscapes of communist times have not yet been fully integrated into the new urban landscapes and infrastructures of today’s democratic nation states, nor have they kept the function or meaning these urban sites used to have during or prior to Soviet-type communism. Post-communist places are therefore constructed and discussed as materializations of the post-communist threshold in the urban space. Mediated by the images and concepts of two site-specific artworks (… And Europe Will Be Stunned (2012), Yael Bartana; Oxygenator (2007), Joanna Rajkowska) the chapter explores such liminal, post-communist places in Warsaw. It argues that post-communist places have the potential to capture a knowledge of the ephemeral, fragmented and fragile aspects of European life and as such become gathering places for relics of unknown or unconscious elements which influence but escape everyday reality in Europe.
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Notes
- 1.
For the theoretical conceptualization of the relation between mental and physical, social space see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson–Smith (Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 1991); For a discussion of historical and geographical materialism in global capitalism see: David Harvey, Social Justice and the City (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009); Edward W. Soja, Postmodern Geographies: Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory, 8th ed. edition (London; New York: Verso, 1989); And for the democratic potential of politicized urban landscapes see: Dolores Hayden, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (MIT Press, 1997).
- 2.
Robert Bevan, The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War (London: Reaktion Books, 2016), 18.
- 3.
Bevan, 18.
- 4.
Tim Edensor, National Identity, Popular Culture and Everyday Life (Oxford; New York: Berg Publishers, 2002).
- 5.
Benjamin Flowers, Skyscraper: The Politics and Power of Building New York City in the Twentieth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc., 2009).
- 6.
Susan Buck-Morss, ‘What Is Political Art?’, in InSITE97: Private Time in Public Space: San Diego, Tijuana (San Diego: Installation Gallery, 1998), 16.
- 7.
See, for example, Martinez, Remains of the Soviet Past in Estonia. An Anthropology of Forgetting, Repair and Urban Traces.
- 8.
David Crowley, Warsaw (Reaktion Books, 2003); Michał Murawski, The Palace Complex: A Stalinist Skyscraper, Capitalist Warsaw, and a City Transfixed (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2019).
- 9.
On the Berlin Biennale in 2012 the JRMiP held its first International Congress creating a space in which its ‘supporters’ were able to discuss and decide on future strategies and actions of the movement. In 2013 an installation in Cologne with the title ‘Wenn Ihr wollt, ist es kein Traum’ (If you will, it is not a dream, Theodor Herzl), showed a documentary film of the congress held in Berlin. The movement has a logo, a website, a first publication and supporters.
- 10.
Adolf Ciborowski, Town Planning in Poland: 1945–1955 (Warsaw: Polonia Publishing House, 1956), 22.
- 11.
Adolf Ciborowski, Warsaw. A City Destroyed and Rebuilt (Warsaw: Polonia Publishing House, 1964). Interestingly this exceptional degree of Warsaw’s destruction is often forgotten. One reason for this might be related to the fact that its destruction had not been caused by the allies’ bombings at the end of the war (like in the case of Dresden or Berlin), but was rather the result of a systematic destruction ordered by German authorities as moral punishment for the two major uprisings against German occupation – none of which had been supported by allied forces. Pijarski writes ‘as a consequence of the 1939 invasion of Poland, the occupation, the Warsaw Ghetto uprising of 1944, the city was destroyed to such an extent that it didn’t seem obvious at the time whether Warsaw would remain the capital of Poland’. Krzysztof Pijarski, ‘Wunderblock Warsaw: The Ruined City, Memory, and Mechanical Reproduction’, View. Theories and Practices of Visual Culture, no. 4 (2013), http://pismowidok.org/index.php/one/article/view/150
- 12.
Vietnamese, Russians, Georgians, Armenians, etc.; ‘merchants from the East’ Roch Sulima, ‘The Laboratory of Polish Postmodernity: An Ethnographic Report from the Stadium-Bazaar’, in Chasing Warsaw: Socio-Material Dynamics of Urban Change Since 1990, ed. Monika Grubbauer and Joanna Kusiak (Frankfurt a. M.: Campus Verlag, 2013), 253.
- 13.
Marek Ostrowski, Barbara Sudnik-Wojcikowska, and Halina Galera, ‘To the eyes of the explorers there appeared a green isle: Botanical researchers at the stadium’, in Stadion X: a place that never was, ed. Joanna Warsza (Warsaw: Korporacja ‘Ha!art’, 2008), 98–101.
- 14.
Eva Hoffman, Shtetl (PublicAffairs, 2007), 39.
- 15.
Characterized by the intimacy of extreme close-ups, the unexpectedness of smash cuts and the unusualness of specific camera angles.
- 16.
Tom McCarthy, ‘At “Manifesto Marathon”’ (Serpentine Gallery, London, 18 October 2008); quoted in: Hans Ulrich Obrist, ‘Manifestos for the Future’, in What Is Contemporary Art?, ed. Julieta Aranda, Brian Kuan Wood, and Anton Vidokle (Berlin: Sternberg Press, 2010), 63.
- 17.
Konrad Matyjaszek, ‘Przestrzeń Pożydowska (Post-Jewish Space)’, Studia Litteraria et Historica 2 (2013): 130–47.
- 18.
Boris Groys, ‘Answering a Call’, accessed 22 June 2015, http://yaelbartana.com/text/deflections-anti-mirrors
- 19.
Buck-Morss, Dreamworld and Catastrophe.
- 20.
Jacqueline Rose, Women in Dark Times (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 232–33.
- 21.
Joanna Mytkowska, ‘Return of the Stranger’, accessed 22 June 2015, http://yaelbartana.com/text/continuing-to-think; Uilleam Blacker, ‘Spatial Dialogues and the Memory of Absent Jews in Contemporary Polish Art: Yale Bartana, Rafal Betlejewski and Joanna Rajkowska’, Open Arts Journal, no. 3 (Summer 2014); Hilary Sclodnick, ‘Yael Bartana and Post-Traumatic Culture: Utopian Reversibility and the Case of Polish National Melancholia’, International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies 11, no. 1 (2012).
- 22.
Blacker uses Foucault’s concept of heterotopia to describe the disrupted state of these sites: ‘Heterotopias are specific cultural spatial constructs that create “other spaces” in society: they allow multiple spaces and times to co-exist, collapsing ideas of linear time and strictly bounded space for a more fluid spatiotemporal experience (Foucault, 1989)’. Blacker, ‘Spatial Dialogues and the Memory of Absent Jews in Contemporary Polish Art: Yale Bartana, Rafal Betlejewski and Joanna Rajkowska’, 185.
- 23.
Adorno and Horkheimer, Dialectic of Enlightenment.
- 24.
Central Commission for the Investigation of German Crimes in Poland, ‘Extermination of the Polish Jews in the Years 1939–1945’, n.d., https://www.phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/gcpol5.htm; Jan T. Gross, Neighbours: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland (London: Arrow, 2003), 8.
- 25.
Hoffman, Shtetl, 8.
- 26.
Hoffman, 9.
- 27.
Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), 81.
- 28.
Dariusz Stola, Kampania Antysyjonistyczna w Polsce 1967–1968 (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 2000).
- 29.
Hoffman, Shtetl, 9.
- 30.
Recent historiographic research on the Holocaust has argued that the ‘Final Solution’ was something that developed gradually and was a result of various, unforeseen and often local factors. It was not, as often believed, a meta-idea that was centrally organized and eventually realized. See, for example, Tom Lawson, ‘Review of The Destruction of the European Jews (Review No. 394)’, Reviews in History, n.d., http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/394. In this respect the local anti-Semitism of Polish people can be seen as one of a range of factors that contributed to the actual extent and form of the extermination of Jews by Nazi Germany.
- 31.
Lanzmann’s Shoah has become one of the most famous documents that captures this part of Polish reality – a documentary which shows Polish eyewitnesses who knew about the Holocaust and partly also seemed to have accepted if not even approved it. Shoah has, however, also been criticized for showing only one side of a more complex reality. For example, it did not mention the extent to which many Poles had helped Jewish citizens while putting their own lives at risk – and by doing so it created a one-dimensional and exotic image of the Holocaust that to its Western audience was presented as something that could only happen in the rural and barbarian East. Gillian Rose, for example, criticized how the spectator is let off the hook by Lanzmann’s documentary, since he/she is left with judging other’s failures instead of having to confront his/her own complicity in what remains after the Holocaust. Gillian Rose, ‘Beginnings of the Day: Fascism and Representation’, in Mourning Becomes the Law: Philosophy and Representation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
- 32.
Andrzej Zbikowski, ‘Pogroms in Northeastern Poland – Spontaneous Reactions and German Instigations’, in Shared History – Divided Memory. Jews and Others in Soviet-Occupied Poland, 1939–1941, vol. V, Leibziger Beiträge Zur Jüdischen Geschichte Und Kultur (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2007), 350.
- 33.
Gross, Neighbours; Jeffrey S. Kopstein and Jason Wittenberg, ‘Deadly Communities: Local Political Milieus and the Persecution of Jews in Occupied Poland’, Comparative Political Studies, 11 October 2010.
- 34.
Jan T. Gross, Fear: Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz. An Essay in Historical Interpretation (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2006).
- 35.
Gunnar S. Paulsson, ‘The Rescue of Jews by Non-Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland’, The Journal of Holocaust Education, 18 February 2015; Institute of National Remembrance and Jan Zaryn, ‘The “Life for a Life” Project – Remembrance of Poles Who Gave Their Lives to Save Jews’, Institute of National Remembrance, accessed 25 July 2020, https://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/285.dok.html.
- 36.
Marek Ziolkowski, ‘Memory and Forgetting after Communism’, Polish Sociological Association 137 (2002): 7–24.
- 37.
Ewa Stanczyk, ‘Caught between Germany and Russia: Memory and National Identity in Poland’s Right-Wing Media Post-2004’, The Slavonic and East European Review 91, no. 2 (April 2013): 289–316; Ewa Stanczyk, ‘“Long Live Poland!”: Representing the Past in Polish Comic Books’, The Modern Language Review 109, no. 1 (January 2014): 178–98.
- 38.
Marco Siddi and Barbara Gaweda, ‘The National Agents of Transnational Memory and Their Limits: The Case of the Museum of the Second World War in Gdańsk’, Journal of Contemporary European Studies 27, no. 2 (3 April 2019): 258–71; Joanna Beata Michlic, ‘“Remembering to Remember,” “Remembering to Benefit,” “Remembering to Forget”: The Variety of Memories of Jews and the Holocaust in Postcommunist Poland’ (Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 2012), https://www.bjpa.org/content/upload/bjpa/mich/Michlic%20Memories%20of%20Jews%20and%20the%20Holocaust%20in%20Postcommunist%20Poland.pdf
- 39.
See, for example, Jeffrey K. Olick, The Politics of Regret: On Collective Memory and Historical Responsibility (Routledge, 2007).
- 40.
Michael Meng, Shattered Spaces: Encountering Jewish Ruins in Postwar Germany and Poland (Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Press, 2011).
- 41.
Diana Pinto, The Third Pillar? Toward a European Jewish Identity (Budapest: Central European University, 1999).
- 42.
Hoffman, Shtetl, 2.
- 43.
Matyjaszek, ‘Przestrzeń Pożydowska (Post-Jewish Space)’, 132.
- 44.
A new law, recently passed by the Polish parliament, which sets a 30-year limit on legal challenges over properties taken from Jewish people during the Second World War, shows how prevalent this shared anxiety still is. Reference:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/14/polands-president-signs-bill-to-curb-claims-on-property-seizedby-nazis. Accessed 22nd September 2021.
- 45.
Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer, ‘Elements of Anti-Semitism: Limits of Enlightenment’, in Dialectic of Enlightenment (London: Verso Books, 1997).
- 46.
In this sense, Israel can be seen as representing the inverted reality of the one that can be found in Poland. While the Polish, European subject has to repress how it occupied the ‘freed’ space that was left after it had destroyed the Jewish other, the Israeli subject, on the other hand, in its quest to found and defend a Jewish nation state, has to repress how it had to create the space it was not granted in Europe by expelling the Palestinian people from their territories. Or as Isaac Deutscher said in The Non-Jewish Jew: ‘the decay of bourgeois Europe has compelled the Jew to embrace the nation-state. This is the paradoxical consummation of the Jewish tragedy’. Isaac Deutscher, The Non-Jewish Jew. And Other Essays (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 40.
- 47.
Dany Nobus and Malcom Quinn, Knowing Nothing, Staying Stupid – Elements for a Psychoanalytic Epistemology (London; New York: Routledge, 2005), 4.
- 48.
The analysand’s ‘experience of being stunned’ is for Simon Bayly and Lisa Baraitser the aim or goal of a Lacanian analysis. Simon Bayly and Lisa Baraitser, ‘On Waiting for Something to Happen’, Subjectivity 24 (2008): 348.
- 49.
When writing on this chapter in 2017, the German Home Secretary, Thomas de Maiziere, published his personal account of a German ‘Leitkultur’/core culture which he regarded as the basis for a successful social life in Germany. Foreigners who wanted to live in Germany had to adjust to German principles.
- 50.
Groys, ‘Answering a Call’.
- 51.
Mytkowska, ‘Return of the Stranger’.
- 52.
Sebastian Chichocki and Galit Eilat eds., A Cookbook for Political Imagination (Warsaw: Zachęta National Gallery of Art; Berlin, 2011), 4.
- 53.
Adorno, Negative Dialectics, 362–63.
- 54.
Jacqueline Rose, ‘History Is a Nightmare’, accessed 22 June 2015, http://yaelbartana.com/text/continuing-to-think-about-minimalism-1
- 55.
Rose refers here to Winnicott’s theory of the transitional object.
- 56.
See, for example, Chmielewska-Szlajfer’s discussion of Rajkowska’s palm tree sculpture. Helena Chmielewska-Szlajfer, ‘The Plastic Palm and Memories in the Making: Conceptual Art Work on Warsaw’s Jerusalem Avenue’, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 23, no. 4 (2010): 201–11. Rajkowska’s relation to the notion of public art is therefore also different from the public element in Bartana’s works. The public element in art is for Rajkowska closely aligned with the impact ordinary people and communities have on the creation of the object as well as the effect which the artwork has on their lives. For Bartana, on the other hand, the public element consists of collaborating with but eventually threading ordinary people and objects into an artistic constellation which as such is to some extent withdrawn from the public space they originated from. What both artists, however, achieve, I argue, is a disruption of common ways of knowing and engaging with specific public sites and the public sphere more generally.
- 57.
Joanna Rajkowska, Where the Beast Is Buried (London: Zero Books, 2013), 1.
- 58.
Rajkowska, Where the Beast Is Buried.
- 59.
Rajkowska, 1.
- 60.
Rajkowska, 39.
- 61.
Cultural heritage is usually referred to as the preservation of material, tangible and intangible culture which is regarded as the shared common good of groups or communities, with this link to cultural or ethnic collectives providing these objects or practices with some form of coherency and collective desirability. Helaine Silverman and D. Fairchild Ruggles, eds., Cultural Heritage and Human Rights (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2007).
- 62.
Rajkowska, Where the Beast Is Buried, 42.
- 63.
Rajkowska, 42.
- 64.
Rajkowska, 42.
- 65.
The massacres that were part of an ethnic cleansing operation in Nazi-occupied Poland and that were carried out by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army between 1943 and 1944, in which approximately 35,000–60,000 Poles, mostly women and children, were killed.
- 66.
Rajkowska, Where the Beast Is Buried, 42.
- 67.
Barad, Meeting the Universe Halfway, 180.
- 68.
Think of Benjamin’s image of the artist as a surgeon.
- 69.
Rajkowska, Where the Beast Is Buried, 42.
- 70.
Rajkowska, 50.
- 71.
Martin Zebracki and Joni Palmer, eds., Public Art Encounters (Routledge, 2018).
- 72.
Blacker, ‘Spatial Dialogues and the Memory of Absent Jews in Contemporary Polish Art: Yale Bartana, Rafal Betlejewski and Joanna Rajkowska’; Natalia Krzyzanowska, ‘The Discourse of Counter-Monuments: Semiotics of Material Commemoration in Contemporary Urban Spaces’, Social Semiotics 26, no. 5 (2016): 465–85.
- 73.
James E. Young, ‘The Counter-Monument: Memory against Itself in Germany Today’, Critical Inquiry 18, no. 2 (Winter 1992): 267–96.
- 74.
Ewa Klekot, ‘The Non-Remembrance of the Ghetto (Niepamiec Getta)’, Konteksty – Polska Sztuka Ludowa 63, no. 1–2 (2009): 46. ‘The monument that did commemorate nothing and hence asked to forget’/‘pomnik, ktory niczego nie upamietnial, lecz pytal o zapomnienie’.
- 75.
I therefore divert from readings which see in this artwork a counter-monument which, as Blacker for instance has written, is ‘not necessarily at odds with mainstream political trends in Poland’. Blacker also presents a different reading of Klekot’s critique. Blacker, ‘Spatial Dialogues and the Memory of Absent Jews in Contemporary Polish Art: Yale Bartana, Rafal Betlejewski and Joanna Rajkowska’, 181.
- 76.
Claudia Lap**, ‘Reflexivity and Fantasy: Surprising Encounters from Interpretation to Interruption’, Qualitative Inquiry 22, no. 9 (2016): 8.
- 77.
Stephen Frosh, ‘What We Are Left With: Psychoanalytic Endings’, in Psychosocial Imaginaries: Perspectives on Temporality, Subjectivities and Activism, ed. Stephen Frosh (UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 210.
- 78.
Gerard Miller, Rendez-vous chez Lacan, 2011.
- 79.
Frosh writes that the event, the touch, remains with us even if the symbolic intervention has ended: ‘It is some kind of event, for sure, like a breaking through of compassion just when you least expect it’. Frosh, ‘What We Are Left With: Psychoanalytic Endings’, 211.
- 80.
Guy Debord, ‘Introduction to a Critique of Urban Geography’, in Situationist International Anthology, ed. Ken Knabb (Bureau of Public Secrets, U.S., 2007).
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Schmukalla, M. (2021). Unthought Places. In: Communist Ghosts . Studies in the Psychosocial. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83730-3_4
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