SpringerLink
Log in

Improving Child and Adolescent Mental Health in Africa: A Review of the Economic Evidence

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Child Behavioral Health in Sub-Saharan Africa

  • 374 Accesses

Abstract

Evidence suggests that the burden of mental health problems among children and adolescents in Africa is significant, and that the treatment gap in mental health is widening. African countries have experienced considerable political and social instability and change and currently have the highest rates of HIV/AIDS and malaria in the world, which can result in neuropsychiatric sequelae. Yet, these countries have very few human and economic resources dedicated to the mental health of children and young people. This chapter reviews the state of the economic evidence base on mental health programs and interventions for children and adolescents in low-resource settings and examines the most immediate economic considerations of introducing, integrating, and scaling up these interventions to improve child and adolescent mental health and well-being in such settings.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 69.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    The WHO defines an adolescent as any person between ages 10 and 19 years.

References

  • Abbo, C., Kinyanda, E., Kizza, R. B., Levin, J., Ndyanabangi, S., & Stein, D. J. (2013). Prevalence, comorbidity and predictors of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents in rural north-eastern Uganda. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 7(1), 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adewuya, A. O., Ola, B. A., & Adewumi, T. A. (2007). The 12-month prevalence of DSM-IV anxiety disorders among Nigerian secondary school adolescents aged 13–18 years. Journal of Adolescence, 30(6), 1071–1076.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ae-Ngibise, K. A., Doku, V. C., Asante, K. P., & Owusu-Agyei, S. (2015). The experience of caregivers of people living with serious mental disorders: A study from rural Ghana. Global Health Action, 8, 26957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. K., Ford, T., Soneson, E., Coon, J. T., Humphrey, A., Rogers, M., … Howarth, E. (2019). A systematic review of effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of school-based identification of children and young people at risk of, or currently experiencing mental health difficulties. Psychological Medicine, 49(1), 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718002490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R., Ukoumunne, O. C., Sayal, K., Phillips, R., Taylor, J. A., Spears, M., … Stallard, P. (2014). Cost-effectiveness of classroom-based cognitive behaviour therapy in reducing symptoms of depression in adolescents: A trial-based analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(12), 1390–1397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Annan, J., Sim, A., Puffer, E. S., Salhi, C., & Betancourt, T. S. (2017). Improving mental health outcomes of Burmese migrant and displaced children in Thailand: A community-based randomized controlled trial of a parenting and family skills intervention. Prevention Science, 18(7), 793–803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0728-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aracena, M., Krause, M., Perez, C., Mendez, M. J., Salvatierra, L., Soto, M., … Altimir, C. (2009). A cost-effectiveness evaluation of a home visit program for adolescent mothers. Journal of Health Psychology, 14(7), 878–887. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309340988

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Araya, R., Fritsch, R., Spears, M., Rojas, G., Martinez, V., Barroilhet, S., … Montgomery, A. A. (2013). School intervention to improve mental health of students in Santiago, Chile: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(11), 1004–1010. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.2361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barry, M. M., Clarke, A. M., Jenkins, R., & Patel, V. (2013). A systematic review of the effectiveness of mental health promotion interventions for young people in low and middle income countries. BMC Public Health, 13, 835.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter, A. J., Patton, G., Scott, K. M., Degenhardt, L., & Whiteford, H. A. (2013). Global epidemiology of mental disorders: What are we missing? PLoS One, 8(6), e65514. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belfer, M. L. (2008). Child and adolescent mental disorders: The magnitude of the problem across the globe. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(3), 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01855.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, C. C., Bhana, A., Petersen, I., McKay, M. M., Gibbons, R., Bannon, W., & Amatya, A. (2008). Building protective factors to offset sexually risky behaviors among Black youths. Journal of the National Medical Association, 100(8), 936–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Betancourt, T. S., Ng, L. C., Kirk, C. M., Munyanah, M., Mushashi, C., Ingabire, C., … Sezibera, V. (2014). Family-based prevention of mental health problems in children affected by HIV and AIDS: An open trial. AIDS, 28(Suppl 3), S359–S368. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boris, N. W., Brown, L. A., Thurman, T. R., Rice, J. C., Snider, L. M., Ntaganira, J., & Nyirazinyoye, L. N. (2008). Depressive symptoms in youth heads of household in Rwanda. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 162(9), 836–843. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.162.9.836

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Britto, P. R., Ponguta, L. A., Reyes, C., & Karnati, R. (2015). A systematic review of parenting programmes for young children. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/earlychildhood/files/P_Shanker_final__Systematic_Review_of_Parenting_ECD_Dec_15_copy.pdf

  • Brody, E. B. (2004). The World Federation for Mental Health: Its origins and contemporary relevance to WHO and WPA policies. World Psychiatry, 3(1), 54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruckner, T. A., Scheffler, R. M., Shen, G., Yoon, J., Chisholm, D., Morris, J., … Saxena, S. (2011). The mental health workforce gap in low- and middle-income countries: A needs-based approach. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 89(3), 184–194. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.10.082784

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buttorff, C., Hock, R. S., Weiss, H. A., Naik, S., Araya, R., Kirkwood, B. R., … Patel, V. (2012). Economic evaluation of a task-shifting intervention for common mental disorders in India. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90(11), 813–821. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.12.104133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carr, C., Martins, C., Stingel, A., Lemgruber, V., & Juruena, M. (2013). The role of early life stress in adult psychiatric disorders: A systematic review according to childhood trauma subtypes. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201, 1007–1020. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000049

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm, D., & Saxena, S. (2012). Cost effectiveness of strategies to combat neuropsychiatric conditions in sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia: Mathematical modelling study. BMJ, 344, e609. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e609

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chorozoglou, M., Smith, E., Koerting, J., Thompson, M. J., Sayal, K., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2015). Preschool hyperactivity is associated with long-term economic burden: Evidence from a longitudinal health economic analysis of costs incurred across childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(9), 966–975. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Compton, S. N., March, J. S., Brent, D., Albano, A. M. T., Weersing, R., & Curry, J. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for anxiety and depressive disorders in children and adolescents: An evidence-based medicine review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(8), 930–959. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000127589.57468.bf

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, M. A., Sodha, A., Fazel, M., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2012). Prevalence of child mental health problems in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(3), 276–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das, J. K., Salam, R. A., Lassi, Z. S., Khan, M. N., Mahmood, W., Patel, V., & Bhutta, Z. A. (2016). Interventions for adolescent mental health: An overview of systematic reviews. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(4S), S49–S60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.06.020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Jong, J. T., Berckmoes, L. H., Kohrt, B. A., Song, S. J., Tol, W. A., & Reis, R. (2015). A public health approach to address the mental health burden of youth in situations of political violence and humanitarian emergencies. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(7), 60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0590-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Souza, M. A., Salum, G. A., Jarros, R. B., Isolan, L., Davis, R., Knijnik, D., … Heldt, E. (2013). Cognitive-behavioral group therapy for youths with anxiety disorders in the community: Effectiveness in low and middle income countries. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 41(3), 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465813000015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deschenes, S. S., Graham, E., Kivimaki, M., & Schmitz, N. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of diabetes: Examining the roles of depressive symptoms and cardiometabolic dysregulations in the Whitehall II cohort study. Diabetes Care, 41(10), 2120–2126. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc18-0932

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorsey, S., Lucid, L., Martin, P., King, K. M., O’Donnell, K., Murray, L. K., … Whetten, K. (2020). Effectiveness of task-shifted trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children who experienced parental death and posttraumatic stress in Kenya and Tanzania: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 77, 464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drew, N., Funk, M., Tang, S., Lamichhane, J., Chávez, E., Katontoka, S., … Saraceno, B. (2011). Human rights violations of people with mental and psychosocial disabilities: An unresolved global crisis. The Lancet, 378(9803), 1664–1675. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61458-X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebert, D. D., Zarski, A. C., Christensen, H., Stikkelbroek, Y., Cuijpers, P., Berking, M., & Riper, H. (2015). Internet and computer-based cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety and depression in youth: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled outcome trials. PLoS One, 10(3), e0119895. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119895

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eloff, I., Finestone, M., Makin, J. D., Boeving-Allen, A., Visser, M., Ebersohn, L., … Forsyth, B. W. (2014). A randomized clinical trial of an intervention to promote resilience in young children of HIV-positive mothers in South Africa. AIDS, 28(3), 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. B., Azene, G., & Kirigia, J. (1997). Should governments subsidize the use of insecticide-impregnated mosquito nets in Africa? Implications of a cost-effectiveness analysis. Health Policy and Planning, 12(2), 107–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, T. G., & Murray, C. J. (1987). A critical re-examination of the economics of blindness prevention under the onchocerciasis control programme. Social Science & Medicine, 25(3), 241–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Ridder, E. M. (2005). Show me the child at seven: The consequences of conduct problems in childhood for psychosocial functioning in adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(8), 837–849. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00387.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furlong, M., McGilloway, S., Bywater, T., Hutchings, J., Smith, S. M., & Donnelly, M. (2012). Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural group-based parenting programmes for early-onset conduct problems in children aged 3 to 12 years. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, 008225. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008225.pub2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, F., Montgomery, P., & Knerr, W. (2016). Transporting evidence-based parenting programs for child problem behavior (age 3-10) between countries: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45(6), 749–762. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1015134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, B. J., Patel, V., Farmer, P. E., & Lu, C. (2015). Assessing development assistance for mental health in develo** countries: 2007-2013. PLoS Medicine, 12(6), e1001834. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001834

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, N. J., & Goldberg, D. (1977). Cost-benefit analysis and the evaluation of psychiatric services. Psychological Medicine, 7(4), 701–707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Global Burden of Disease Pediatrics Committee, Kyu, H. H., Pinho, C., Wagner, J. A., Brown, J. C., Bertozzi-Villa, A., & Vos, T. (2016). Global and national burden of diseases and injuries among children and adolescents between 1990 and 2013: Findings from the global burden of disease 2013 study. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(3), 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.4276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goesling, B., Colman, S., Trenholm, C., Terzian, M., & Moore, K. (2014). Programs to reduce teen pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and associated sexual risk behaviors: A systematic review. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(5), 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.12.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grantham-McGregor, S., & Smith, J. A. (2016). Extending the Jamaican early childhood development intervention. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk, 7, 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griswold, M. G., Fullman, N., Hawley, C., Arian, N., Zimsen, S. R. M., Tymeson, H. D., … Gakidou, E. (2018). Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. The Lancet, 392(10152), 1015–1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31310-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gureje, O., Chisholm, D., Kola, L., Lasebikan, V., & Saxena, S. (2007). Cost-effectiveness of an essential mental health intervention package in Nigeria. World Psychiatry, 6(1), 42–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gwaikolo, W. S., Kohrt, B. A., & Cooper, J. L. (2017). Health system preparedness for integration of mental health services in rural Liberia. BMC Health Services Research, 17(1), 508–508. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-017-2447-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanlon, C., Luitel, N. P., Kathree, T., Murhar, V., Shrivasta, S., Medhin, G., … Prince, M. (2014). Challenges and opportunities for implementing integrated mental health care: A district level situation analysis from five low- and middle-income countries. PLoS One, 9(2), e88437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, E. A., Kaiser, B. N., & Puffer, E. S. (2018). Family-based youth mental health interventions delivered by nonspecialist providers in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Families, Systems & Health, 36(2), 182–197. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutton, J. (2012). ‘Health economics’ and the evolution of economic evaluation of health technologies. Health Economics, 21(1), 13–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1818

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Independent Evaluation Group. (2010). Cost-benefit analysis in world bank projects. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2561

  • Iribarren, S. J., Cato, K., Falzon, L., & Stone, P. W. (2017). What is the economic evidence for mHealth? A systematic review of economic evaluations of mHealth solutions. PLoS One, 12(2), e0170581. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivbijaro, G., Kolkiewicz, L., Lionis, C., Svab, I., Cohen, A., & Sartorius, N. (2008). Primary care mental health and Alma-Ata: From evidence to action. Mental Health in Family Medicine, 5(2), 67–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jack, H., Wagner, R. G., Petersen, I., Thom, R., Newton, C. R., Stein, A., & Hofman, K. J. (2014). Closing the mental health treatment gap in South Africa: A review of costs and cost-effectiveness. Global Health Action, 7, 1. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v7.23431

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, K. S. (2017). Mental health services in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet Psychiatry, 4, 87–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30423-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, A. C., James, G., Cowdrey, F. A., Soler, A., & Choke, A. (2015). Cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2015, CD004690. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004690.pub4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Javadi, D., Feldhaus, I., Mancuso, A., & Ghaffar, A. (2017). Applying systems thinking to task shifting for mental health using lay providers: A review of the evidence. Global Mental Health, 4, e14. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2017.15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, R. (2019). Global mental health and sustainable development 2018. British Journal of Psychiatry, 16(2), 34–37. https://doi.org/10.1192/bji.2019.5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, R., Kiima, D., Okonji, M., Njenga, F., Kingora, J., & Lock, S. (2010). Integration of mental health into primary care and community health working in Kenya: Context, rationale, coverage and sustainability. Mental Health in Family Medicine, 7(1), 37–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, R., Othieno, C., Ongeri, L., Ongecha, M., Sifuna, P., Omollo, R., & Ogutu, B. (2017). Malaria and mental disorder: A population study in an area endemic for malaria in Kenya. World Psychiatry, 16(3), 324–325. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jewkes, R., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Dunkle, K., Puren, A., & Duvvury, N. (2008). Impact of step** stones on incidence of HIV and HSV-2 and sexual behaviour in rural South Africa: Cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ, 337, a507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonas, S., Bebbington, P., McManus, S., Meltzer, H., Jenkins, R., Kuipers, E., … Brugha, T. (2011). Sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in England: Results from the 2007 adult psychiatric morbidity survey. Psychological Medicine, 41(4), 709–719. https://doi.org/10.1017/s003329171000111x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kakuma, R., Minas, H., van Ginneken, N. et al. (2011). Human resources for mental health care: current situation and strategies for action. Lancet, 378(9803), 1654–1663.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kariuki, S. M., Abubakar, A., Kombe, M. et al. (2017). Burden, risk factors, and comorbidities of behavioural and emotional problems in Kenyan children: a population-based study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(2), 136–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kawakami, N., Abdulghani, E. A., Alonso, J., Bromet, E. J., Bruffaerts, R., Caldas-de-Almeida, J. M., … Kessler, R. C. (2012). Early-life mental disorders and adult household income in the world mental health surveys. Biological Psychiatry, 72(3), 228–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.03.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Amminger, P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & Ustun, T. B. (2007). Age of onset of mental disorders: A review of recent literature. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20(4), 359–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., … Williams, D. R. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO world mental health surveys. The British Journal of Psychiatry: the Journal of Mental Science, 197(5), 378–385. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080499

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kieling, C., Baker-Henningham, H., Belfer, M. L., Conti, G., Ertem, I., Omigbodun, O., … Rahman, A. (2011). Child and adolescent mental health worldwide: Evidence for action. Lancet, 378, 1515–1525. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60827-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kieling, C., & Rohde, L. A. (2012). Going global: Epidemiology of child and adolescent psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(12), 1236–1237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.09.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, J. B., Jacobs, R. H., & Reinecke, M. A. (2007). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescent depression: A meta-analytic investigation of changes in effect-size estimates. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(11), 1403–1413. https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e3180592aaa

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohrt, B. A., Asher, L., Bhardwaj, A., Fazel, M., Jordans, M. J. D., Mutamba, B. B., … Patel, V. (2018). The role of communities in mental health care in low- and middle-income countries: A meta-review of components and competencies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumakech, E., Cantor-Graae, E., Maling, S., & Bajunirwe, F. (2009). Peer-group support intervention improves the psychosocial well-being of AIDS orphans: Cluster randomized trial. Social Science & Medicine, 68, 1038–1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S., Tsang, A., Breslau, J., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Angermeyer, M., Borges, G., … Kessler, R. C. (2009). Mental disorders and termination of education in high-income and low- and middle-income countries: Epidemiological study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 194(5), 411–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, C., & Chisholm, D. (2016). Cost-effectiveness and affordability of interventions, policies, and platforms for the prevention and treatment of mental, neurological, and substance use disorders. In V. Patel, D. Chisholm, T. Dua, R. Laxminarayan, & M. E. Medina-Mora (Eds.), Mental, neurological, and substance use disorders: Disease control priorities. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, D., Lakoma, M. D., Petukhova, M., Schoenbaum, M., Zaslavsky, A. M., Angermeyer, M., & Kessler, R. C. (2010). Associations of serious mental illness with earnings: Results from the WHO world mental health surveys. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 197(2), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.109.073635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lund, C., Breen, A., Flisher, A. J., Kakuma, R., Corrigall, J., Joska, J. A., … Patel, V. (2010). Poverty and common mental disorders in low and middle income countries: A systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 71(3), 517–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.04.027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lund, C., Myer, L., Stein, D. J., Williams, D. R., & Flisher, A. J. (2013). Mental illness and lost income among adult South Africans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48, 845–851.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., Todd Manly, J., Von Klitzing, K., Tamminen, T., Emde, R., Fitzgerald, H., … Watanabe, H. (2017). The worldwide burden of infant mental and emotional disorder: Report of the Task Force of the World Association for Infant Mental Health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 38(6), 695–705. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mascayano, F., Armijo, J. E., & Yang, L. H. (2015). Addressing stigma relating to mental illness in low- and middle-income countries. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6, 38–38. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00038

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McBain, R. K., Salhi, C., Hann, K., Salomon, J. A., Kim, J. J., & Betancourt, T. S. (2016). Costs and cost-effectiveness of a mental health intervention for war-affected young persons: Decision analysis based on a randomized controlled trial. Health Policy and Planning, 31(4), 415–424. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czv078

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCrone, P., Knapp, M., & Fombonne, E. (2005). The Maudsley long-term follow-up of child and adolescent depression. Predicting costs in adulthood. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 14(7), 407–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-005-0491-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDaid, D. (2018). Using economic evidence to help make the case for investing in health promotion and disease prevention. WHO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mellins, C. A., & Malee, K. M. (2013). Understanding the mental health of youth living with perinatal HIV infection: Lessons learned and current challenges. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 18593. https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.16.1.18593

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendenhall, E., De Silva, M. J., Hanlon, C. et al. (2014). Acceptability and feasibility of using non-specialist health workers to deliver mental health care: stakeholder perceptions from the PRIME district sites in Ethiopia, India, Nepal, South Africa, and Uganda. Social Science & Medicine 118, 33–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mihalopoulos, C., Magnus, A., Lal, A., Dell, L., Forbes, D., & Phelps, A. (2015a). Is implementation of the 2013 Australian treatment guidelines for posttraumatic stress disorder cost-effective compared to current practice? A cost-utility analysis using QALYs and DALYs. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49(4), 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867414553948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mihalopoulos, C., Vos, T., Pirkis, J., & Carter, R. (2011). The economic analysis of prevention in mental health programs. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 169–201. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104601

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mihalopoulos, C., Vos, T., Rapee, R. M., Pirkis, J., Chatterton, M. L., Lee, Y. C., & Carter, R. (2015b). The population cost-effectiveness of a parenting intervention designed to prevent anxiety disorders in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(9), 1026–1033. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12438

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monath, T. P., & Nasidi, A. (1993). Should yellow fever vaccine be included in the expanded program of immunization in Africa? A cost-effectiveness analysis for Nigeria. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 48(2), 274–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monnat, S. M., & Chandler, R. F. (2015). Long term physical health consequences of adverse childhood experiences. The Sociological Quarterly, 56(4), 723–752. https://doi.org/10.1111/tsq.12107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L. K., Dorsey, S., Bolton, P., Jordans, M. J., Rahman, A., Bass, J., & Verdeli, H. (2011). Building capacity in mental health interventions in low resource countries: An apprenticeship model for training local providers. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 5(1), 30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L. K., Dorsey, S., Skavenski, S., Kasoma, M., Imasiku, M., Bolton, P., … Cohen, J. A. (2013a). Identification, modification, and implementation of an evidence-based psychotherapy for children in a low-income country: The use of TF-CBT in Zambia. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 7(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-7-24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L. K., Familiar, I., Skavenski, S., Jere, E., Cohen, J., Imasiku, M., … Bolton, P. (2013b). An evaluation of trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children in Zambia. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(12), 1175–1185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.04.017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L. K., Skavenski, S., Kane, J. C., Mayeya, J., Dorsey, S., Cohen, J. A., … Bolton, P. A. (2015). Effectiveness of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy among trauma-affected children in Lusaka, Zambia: A randomized clinical TrialTrauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8), 761–769. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0580

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mutamba, B. B., Ginneken, Nv., Paintain, L. S., Wandiembe, S., & Schellenberg, D. (2013). Roles and effectiveness of lay community health workers in the prevention of mental, neurological and substance use disorders in low and middle income countries: a systematic review. BMC Health Services Research, 13, 412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naficy, A., Rao, M. R., Paquet, C., Antona, D., Sorkin, A., & Clemens, J. D. (1998). Treatment and vaccination strategies to control cholera in sub-Saharan refugee settings: A cost-effectiveness analysis. JAMA, 279(7), 521–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ngui, E. M., Khasakhala, L., Ndetei, D., & Roberts, L. W. (2010). Mental disorders, health inequalities and ethics: A global perspective. International Review of Psychiatry, 22(3), 235–244. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2010.485273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nystrand, C., Feldman, I., Enebrink, P., & Sampaio, F. (2019). Cost-effectiveness analysis of parenting interventions for the prevention of behaviour problems in children. PLoS One, 14(12), e0225503. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ophuis, R. H., Lokkerbol, J., Heemskerk, S. C., van Balkom, A. J., Hiligsmann, M., & Evers, S. M. (2017). Cost-effectiveness of interventions for treating anxiety disorders: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 210, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opoku-Boateng, Y. N., Kretchy, I. A., Aryeetey, G. C., Dwomoh, D., Decker, S., Agyemang, S. A., … Nonvignon, J. (2017). Economic cost and quality of life of family caregivers of schizophrenic patients attending psychiatric hospitals in Ghana. BMC Health Services Research, 17(Suppl 2), 697. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-017-2642-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, J. P., Baig, B., Abbo, C., & Baheretibeb, Y. (2016). Child and adolescent mental health in sub-Saharan Africa: A perspective from clinicians and researchers. British Journal of Psychiatry, 13(2), 45–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patalay, P., & Fitzsimons, E. (2016). Correlates of mental illness and wellbeing in children: Are they the same? Results from the UK millennium cohort study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(9), 771–783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.05.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel, V., & Saxena, S. (2019). Achieving universal health coverage for mental disorders. BMJ, 366, l4516. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l4516

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel, V., Saxena, S., Lund, C., Thornicroft, G., Baingana, F., Bolton, P., … UnÃœtzer, J. (2018). The Lancet Commission on global mental health and sustainable development. The Lancet, 392(10157), 1553–1598. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31612-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, G. A., Smallegange, E., Coetzee, A., Hartog, K., Turner, J., Jordans, M. J. D., & Brown, F. L. (2019). A systematic review of the evidence for family and parenting interventions in low- and middle-income countries: Child and youth mental health outcomes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(8), 2036–2055. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01399-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, I., & Lund, C. (2011). Mental health service delivery in South Africa from 2000 to 2010: One step forward, one step back. South African Medical Journal, 101(10), 751–757.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prost, A., & Prescott, N. (1984). Cost-effectiveness of blindness prevention by the onchocerciasis control programme in upper volta. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 62(5), 795–802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puffer, E. S., Green, E. P., Sikkema, K. J., Broverman, S. A., Ogwang-Odhiambo, R. A., & Pian, J. (2016). A church-based intervention for families to promote mental health and prevent HIV among adolescents in rural Kenya: Results of a randomized trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(6), 511–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000076

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purgato, M., Gastaldon, C., Papola, D., van Ommeren, M., Barbui, C., & Tol, W. A. (2018). Psychological therapies for the treatment of mental disorders in low- and middle-income countries affected by humanitarian crises. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 7, CD011849. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011849.pub2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rathod, S., Pinninti, N., Irfan, M., Gorczynski, P., Rathod, P., Gega, L., & Naeem, F. (2017). Mental health service provision in low-and middle-income countries. Health Services Insights, 10, 1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Razzouk, D., Sharan, P., Gallo, C., Gureje, O., Lamberte, E. E., de Jesus Mari, J., et al. (2010). Scarcity and inequity of mental health research resources in low- and middle-income countries: A global survey. Health Policy, 94(3), 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2009.09.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redfern, A., Cluver, L. D., Casale, M., & Steinert, J. I. (2019). Cost and cost-effectiveness of a parenting programme to prevent violence against adolescents in South Africa. BMJ Global Health, 4(3), e001147. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-001147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J. A., Robertson, D. L., & Mann, E. A. (2002). Age 21 cost-benefit analysis of the title I Chicago child-parent centers. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(4), 267–303. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737024004267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivet-Duval, E., Heriot, S., & Hunt, C. (2011). Preventing adolescent depression in Mauritius: A universal school-based program. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 16(2), 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2010.00584.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfield, P. L., Golladay, F., & Davidson, R. K. (1984). The economics of parasitic diseases: Research priorities. Social Science & Medicine, 19(10), 1117–1126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, L. B. (2015). The science of making better decisions about health: Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. Retrieved from http://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/education/curriculum-tools/population-health/russell.html

  • Russell, L. B., Gold, M. R., Siegel, J. E., Daniels, N., & Weinstein, M. C. (1996). The role of cost-effectiveness analysis in health and medicine: Panel on cost-effectiveness in health and medicine. JAMA, 276(14), 1172–1177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandler, I., Ingram, A., Wolchik, S., Tein, J. Y., & Winslow, E. (2015). Long-term effects of parenting-focused preventive interventions to promote resilience of children and adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 9(3), 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sankoh, O., Sevalie, S., & Weston, M. (2018). Mental health in Africa. The Lancet Global Health, 6(9), e954–e955. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2214-109x(18)30303-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarnquist, C., Sinclair, J., Omondi Mboya, B., Langat, N., Paiva, L., Halpern-Felsher, B., … Baiocchi, M. T. (2017). Evidence that classroom-based behavioral interventions reduce pregnancy-related school dropout among Nairobi adolescents. Health Education & Behavior, 44(2), 297–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198116657777

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, C., Barican, J. L., Yung, D., Zheng, Y., & Waddell, C. (2019). Six decades of preventing and treating childhood anxiety disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis to inform policy and practice. Evidence-Based Mental Health, 22(3), 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2019-300096

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. G., Mihalopoulos, C., Erskine, H. E., Roberts, J., & Rahman, A. (2015). Childhood mental and developmental disorders. In V. Patel, D. Chisholm, T. Dua, R. Laxminarayan, & M. E. Medina-Mora (Eds.), Mental, neurological, and substance use disorders (3rd ed.). World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, S., Knapp, M., Henderson, J., & Maughan, B. (2001). Financial cost of social exclusion: Follow up study of antisocial children into adulthood. BMJ, 323(7306), 191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, G., & Atun, R. (2017). Does task shifting yield cost savings and improve efficiency for health systems? A systematic review of evidence from low-income and middle-income countries. Human Resources for Health, 15(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-017-0200-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semrau, M., Evans-Lacko, S., Koschorke, M., Ashenafi, L., & Thornicroft, G. (2015). Stigma and discrimination related to mental illness in low- and middle-income countries. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 24(5), 382–394. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796015000359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaaban, K. M. A., & Baashar, T. A. (2003). A community study of depression in adolescent girls: Prevalence and its relation to age. Medical Principles and Practice, 12(4), 256–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siskind, D., Baingana, F., & Kim, J. (2008). Cost-effectiveness of group psychotherapy for depression in Uganda. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 11(3), 127–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Small, L., Mercado, M., Gopalan, P., Pardo, G., Ann Mellins, C., & McKay, M. M. (2014). Enhancing the emotional wellbeing of perinatally HIV infected youth across global contexts. Global Social Welfare, 1(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-014-0009-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ssewamala, F. M., Neilands, T. B., Waldfogel, J., & Ismayilova, L. (2012). The impact of a comprehensive microfinance intervention on depression levels of AIDS-orphaned children in Uganda. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(4), 346–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ssewamala, F. M., Wang, J. S., Neilands, T. B., Bermudez, L. G., Garfinkel, I., Waldfogel, J., … Kirkbride, G. (2018). Cost-effectiveness of a savings-led economic empowerment intervention for AIDS-affected adolescents in Uganda: Implications for scale-up in low-resource communities. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(1S), S29–S36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.09.026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, D. J., Benjet, C., Gureje, O., Lund, C., Scott, K. M., Poznyak, V., & van Ommeren, M. (2019). Integrating mental health with other non-communicable diseases. BMJ, 364, l295. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sudre, P., Breman, J. G., McFarland, D., & Koplan, J. P. (1992). Treatment of chloroquine-resistant malaria in African children: A cost-effectiveness analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 21(1), 146–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Surkan, P. J., Kennedy, C. E., Hurley, K. M., & Black, M. M. (2011). Maternal depression and early childhood growth in develo** countries: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 89(8), 608–615. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.088187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The Government Office for Science. (2008). Foresight mental capital and wellbeing project: Final project report. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/292450/mental-capital-wellbeing-report.pdf

  • Thompson, E. H., & Doll, W. (1982). The burden of families co** with the mentally III: An invisible crisis. Family Relations, 31(3), 379–388. https://doi.org/10.2307/584170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornicroft, G., & Tansella, M. (2009). Better mental health care. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tozan, Y., Sun, S., Capasso, A., Shu-Huah Wang, J., Neilands, T. B., Bahar, O. S., … Ssewamala, F. M. (2019). Evaluation of a savings-led family-based economic empowerment intervention for AIDS-affected adolescents in Uganda: A four-year follow-up on efficacy and cost-effectiveness. PLoS One, 14(12), e0226809–e0226809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226809

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tozan, Y., Sun, S., Capasso, A., Shu-Huah Wang, J., Neilands, T. B., Bahar, O. S., … Ssewamala, F. M. (2020). Evaluation of a savings-led family-based economic empowerment intervention for AIDS-affected adolescents in Uganda: A four-year follow-up on efficacy and cost-effectiveness. PLoS One, 14(12), e0226809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226809

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. (2017a). Changing population age structures and sustainable development: A concise report. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/trends/ConciseReport2017/English.pdf

  • United Nations. (2017b). World population prospects 2017. Retrieved from https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/

  • Vreeman, R. C., McCoy, B. M., & Lee, S. (2017). Mental health challenges among adolescents living with HIV. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 20(Suppl 3), 21497. https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.20.4.21497

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP). (2018). Benefit-cost results. https://www.wsipp.wa.gov/BenefitCostx. Accessed February 13, 2020.

  • World Health Organization. (1946). Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization. Paper presented at the International Health Conference, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (1978). Declaration of Alma-Ata. Paper presented at the International Conference on Primary Health Care, Alma-Ata, USSR.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2001). The World health report: 2001: Mental health: new understanding, new hope. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42390

  • World Health Organization. (2008). mhGAP: Mental Health Gap Action Programme: scaling up care for mental, neurological and substance use disorders.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2013). Mental health action plan 2013–2020. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241506021

  • World Health Organization. (2018). Mental health atlas 2017. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272735/9789241514019-eng.pdf?ua=1

  • Yatham, S., Sivathasan, S., Yoon, R., da Silva, T. L., & Ravindran, A. V. (2017). Depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder among youth in low and middle income countries: A review of prevalence and treatment interventions. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2017.10.029

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoder, H. N. C., Tol, W. A., Reis, R., & de Jong, J. T. V. M. (2016). Child mental health in Sierra Leone: A survey and exploratory qualitative study. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 10, 48–48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-016-0080-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zechmeister, I., Kilian, R., & McDaid, D. (2008). Is it worth investing in mental health promotion and prevention of mental illness? A systematic review of the evidence from economic evaluations. BMC Public Health, 8, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-8-20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zergaw, A., Hailemariam, D., Alem, A., & Kebede, D. (2008). A longitudinal comparative analysis of economic and family caregiver burden due to bipolar disorder. The African Journal of Psychiatry, 11, 191–198.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Global Public Health, New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Yesim Tozan & Ariadna Capasso

Authors
  1. Yesim Tozan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ariadna Capasso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yesim Tozan .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Brown School, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA

    Fred M. Ssewamala

  2. Brown School, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA

    Ozge Sensoy Bahar

  3. Brown School, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA

    Mary M. McKay

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Tozan, Y., Capasso, A. (2022). Improving Child and Adolescent Mental Health in Africa: A Review of the Economic Evidence. In: Ssewamala, F.M., Sensoy Bahar, O., McKay, M.M. (eds) Child Behavioral Health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83707-5_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83707-5_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-83706-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-83707-5

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation