Determinants of Intergenerational Trauma Transmission: A Case of the Survivors of the 1994 Genocide Against Tutsi in Rwanda

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Child Behavioral Health in Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

This chapter explores the transmission of trauma, models of transmission, intersection of PTSD in parents and parent-infant attachment, determinants of the PTSD transmission within the Rwandan context, possible pathways of child traumatization in post-genocide Rwanda, conclusions, and further perspectives.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 69.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmadzadeh, G. H., & Malekian, A. (2004). Aggression, anxiety, and social development in adolescent children of war veterans with PTSD versus those of non-veterans. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences: The Official Journal of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, 9(5), 231–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albeck, H. J. (1993). Intergenerational consequences of trauma reframing taps in treatment theory: A second generation perspectives. In M. O. Williams & J. F. Sommer (Eds.), Handbook of post traumatic therapy. Greenwood Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ammerman, R. T., Putnam, F. W., Chard, K. M., Stevens, J., & Van Ginkel, J. B. (2012). PTSD in depressed mothers in home visitation. Psychol Trauma, 4, a0023062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock Fenerci, R. L., Chu, A. T., & DePrince, A. P. (2016). Intergenerational transmission of trauma-related distress: Maternal betrayal trauma, Parenting Attitudes, and Behaviors. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25(4), 382–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.1129655

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baum, R. (2012). Trans-generational trauma and repetition in the body: The groove of the wound. An International Journal for Theory, Research and Practice, 8, 34–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berckmoes, L. H., Eichelsheim, V., Rutayisire, T., Richters, A., & Hola, B. (2017). How legacies of genocide are transmitted in the family environment: A qualitative study of two generations in Rwanda. Societies, 7, 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc7030024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg. (1977). Treatment of the abused child and the child abuser. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 31, 204–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowers, M. E., & Yehuda, R. (2016). Intergenerational transmission of stress in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41, 232–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brockman, C., Snyder, J., Gewirtz, A., Gird, S. R., Quattlebaum, J., Schmidt, N., et al. (2016). Relationship of service members’ deployment trauma, PTSD symptoms, and experiential avoidance to post deployment family reengagement. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 52–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Courtois, C. (1988). Healing the incest wound: Adult survivors in therapy. W.W. Norton & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danieli, Y. (Ed.). (1998). International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma. Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, A. C., & Mellor, D. J. (2012). The adjustment of children of Australian Vietnam veterans: Is there evidence for the transgenerational transmission of the effects of war related trauma? The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 345–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekel, R., & Goldblatt, H. (2008). Is there intergenerational transmission of trauma? The case of combat veterans’ children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 281–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felsen, I. (1998). Trans-generational transmission effects of holocaust: The North America research perspective. In Y. Danieli (Ed.), International handbooks of multigenerational legacies of trauma. Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, N. P., Muong, S., & Sochanvimean, V. (2013). Parental styles in the intergenerational transmission of trauma stemming from the Khmer rouge regime in Cambodia. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83, 483–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerard, A. B. (1994). Parent–child relationship inventory (PCRI) manual. WPS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartsough, D. M., & Myers, D. G. (1985). Disaster work and mental health: Prevention and control of stress among workers. National Institute of Mental Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. (1992). Trauma and recovery. New York: Basic books. Jacobsen, L. K., Sweeney, C. G., & Racusin, G. R. (1993). Group psycho-therapy for children of fathers with PTSD: Evidence of psychopathology emerging in the group process. Journal of Child and Adolescent Group Therapy, 3, 103–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juni, S. (2016). Second-generation Holocaust survivors: Psychological, theological, and moral challenges. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 17, 97–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karam, E. G., Friedman, M. J., Hill, E. D., et al. (2014). Cumulative traumas and risk thresh olds: 12-month PTSD in the world mental health (WMH) surveys. Depression and Anxiety, 31, 130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kellerman, N. P. F. (1999). Bibliography: Children of holocaust survivors. AMCHA, the National Israeli Center for psychosocial support of Holocaust survivors and second generation, Jerusalem. http://www.judymeschel.com/coshpsych.htm

  • Kellerman, N. P. F. (2001). Perceived parental rearing behaviors in children of Holocaust survivors. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 38(1), 58–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellermann, N. P. (2013). Epigenetic transmission of holocaust trauma: Can nightmares be inherited. The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 50, 33–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein-Parker, F. (1988). Dominant attitudes of adult children of holocaust survivors toward their parents. In J. P. Wilson, Z. Harel, & B. Kahana (Eds.), The plenum series on stress and co**. Human adaptation to extreme stress: From the Holocaust to Vietnam (pp. 193–218). Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D. J., Warner, C. H., & Hoge, C. W. (2015). Posttraumatic stress disorder screening in the U.S. military and VA populations. In Posttraumatic stress disorder and related diseases in combat veterans (pp. 13–26). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Leen-Feldner, E. W., Feldner, M. T., Bunaciu, L., & Blumenthal, H. (2011). Associations between parental posttraumatic stress disorder and both offspring internalizing problems and parental aggression within the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 169–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehrner, A., & Yehuda, R. (2018). Cultural trauma and epigenetic inheritance. Development and Psychopathology, 30(5), 1763–1777. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001153

  • Lowin, R.G. (1983). Cross-generational transmission of pathology in Jewish families of Holocaust survivors. California School of Professional Psychology, San Diego. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 3533.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann, L., & Pearlman, L. A. (1990). Vicarious traumatization: A framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 131–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, A. (2000). Impacts of poverty on children, brotherhood comment, Brotherhood of St Laurence. Scientific Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meaney, M. J., & Szyf, M. (2005). Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: Life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 7, 103–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munyandamutsa, N., Nkubamugisha, M. P., Gex-Fabry, M., & Eytan, A. (2012). Mental and physical health in Rwanda 14 years after the genocide. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(11), 1753–1756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0494-912

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mutuyimana, C., Sezibera, V., Nsabimana, E., et al. (2019). PTSD prevalence among resident mothers and their offspring in Rwanda 25 years after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. BMC Psychol, 7, 84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-019-0362-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ntaganira, J., et al. (2015). Intimate partner violence among pregnant women in Rwanda. BMC Women’s Health, 8, 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6874-8-17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perroud, N., Rutembesa, E., Paoloni-Giacobino, A., Mutabaruka, J., Mutesi, L., Stenz, L., Malafosse, A., & Karege, F. (2014). The Tutsi genocide and transgenerational transmission of maternal stress: Epigenetics and biology of the HPA Axis. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 15, 334–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pham, P. N., Weinstein, H. M., & Longman, T. (2004). Trauma and PTSD symptoms in Rwanda: Implications for attitudes toward justice and reconciliation. JAMA, 292, 602–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pidgeon, A. M., & Sanders, M. R. (2009). Attributions, parental anger and risk of maltreatment. International Journal of Child Health and Human Development, 2, 57–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rieder, H., & Elbert, T. (2013). Rwanda-lasting imprints of a genocide: trauma, mental health and Psychosocial conditions in survivors, former prisoners and their children. Conflict and Health, 7, 6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenheck, R., & Nathan, P. (1985). Secondary traumatization in children of Vietnam veterans. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 5, 538–539.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth, M., Neuner, F., & Elbert, T. (2014). Transgenerational consequences of PTSD: Risk factors for the mental health of children whose mothers have been exposed to the Rwandan genocide. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 8, 12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruscio, A. M., Weathers, F. W., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (2002). Male war zone veterans’ perceived relationships with their children: The importance of emotional numbing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 351–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schechter, D.S., & Willheim, E. (2009). Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 18(3), 665–687.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler, K. (2010). Who does what in a household dafter genocide? Evidence from Rwanda. German Institute for Economic Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S., Dohrenwend, B. P., & Levav, I. (1994). Non-genetic familial transmission of psychiatric disorders? Evidence from children of Holocaust survivors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 385–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, M. D., Larsen, J., Straits-Troster, K., Erbes, C., & Tassey, J. (2015). Veteran–child communication about parental PTSD: A mixed methods pilot study. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 595–603. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Showalter S. E. (2010). Compassion fatigue: what is it? Why does it matter? Recognizing the symptoms, acknowledging the impact, develo** the tools to prevent compassion fatigue, and strengthen the professional already suffering from the effects. The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care, 27(4), 239–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049909109354096

  • Shriraa, A., Mollova, B., & Mudahogora, C. (2019). Complex PTSD and intergenerational transmission of distress and resilience among Tutsi genocide survivors and their offspring: A preliminary report. Psychiatry Research, 271, 121–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigal, J., & Weinfeld, M. (1992). Trauma and rebirth: Intergenerational effects of Holocaust. Praeger. https://doi.org/10.2307/2076314

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, S. (2004). How many perpetrators were there in the Rwandan genocide? An estimate. Journal of Genocide Research, 6(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/1462352042000194728

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., & Bierer, L. M. (2008). Transgenerational transmission of cortisol and PTSD risk. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67009-5

  • Wimalawansa, S. J. (2014). Causes and risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder: The importance of right diagnosis and treatment. Asian Journal of Medical Sciences, 5(2), 1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Bierer, L. M., Schmeidler, J., Aferiat, D. H., Breslau, I., & Dolan, S. (2000). Low cortisol and risk for PTSD in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1252–1259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., et al. (2014). Influences of maternal and paternal PTSD on epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in Holocaust survivor offspring. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(8), 872–880.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vincent Sezibera .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Mutuyimana, C., Sezibera, V., Cassady, C. (2022). Determinants of Intergenerational Trauma Transmission: A Case of the Survivors of the 1994 Genocide Against Tutsi in Rwanda. In: Ssewamala, F.M., Sensoy Bahar, O., McKay, M.M. (eds) Child Behavioral Health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83707-5_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83707-5_11

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-83706-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-83707-5

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Navigation