“Recouer thyne aunciente bewtie”: Mid-Tudor Empire over Mid-Tudor Crisis, 1550–1570

Hower, Jessica S.

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62892-5_5

Jessica S. Hower⁵

Part of the book series: Britain and the World ((BAW))

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Abstract

This chapter considers the apparent sea changes of the mid-Tudor era—from the “godly” protestant minority of Edward VI and his second regent, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, to the Catholic, half-Spanish Mary I as England’s first crowned queen regnant and wife of Philip II, to the accession of Elizabeth I and her church settlement—and uncovers how a common preoccupation with nation, identity, empire, and the Atlantic world knits these supposedly antithetical monarchs and their reigns together and to their shared past. The result was a powerful discourse and rhetoric of self, otherness, and imperialism that realigned Tudor sights and goals and set the stage for a flurry of projects in the decades that followed.

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Notes

1.
Dudley was made duke in October 1551. To avoid confusion, I refer to him as Northumberland throughout below.
2.
Eden, The decades of the newe worlde… (London: 1555). On Eden, see David Gwyn, “Richard Eden: Cosmographer and Alchemist,” Sixteenth Century Journal 15, no. 1 (Spring 1984): 13–34; Andrew Hadfield, Literature, Travel, and Colonial Writing in the English Renaissance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); Hadfield, “Eden, Richard (c. 1520–1576),” ODNB (2008); and Hadfield, William Hamlin, Claire Jowitt, Anthony Pagden, and Michael Brennan in Connotations 6, nos. 1–3 (1996/7): 1–22, 46–50, 51–64, 65–66, 227–245, 310–315.
3.
Cell, English Enterprise in Newfoundland, 1577–1660 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969), 35.
4.
Eden, A treatyse of the newe India… (London: 1553).
5.
Eden, Decades, sig. [a.ii.^r].
6.
Eden, Treatyse, sigs. aa.ii.^r, aa.ii.^v.
7.
Eden, Treatyse, sigs. aa.iii.^r–v.
8.
Eden, Treatyse, sig. aa.iiii.^r.
9.
Eden, Treatyse, sigs. aa.iiii.^r, aa.iiii.^v.
10.
Eden, Treatyse, sig. aa.iiii.^v–[aa.v.^r].
11.
Eden, Decades, sig. a.i.^r.
12.
Eden, Decades, sigs. b.iii.^v–b.iiii.^r.
13.
Eden, Decades, sigs. a.i.^v–a.ii.^r.
14.
Eden, Decades, sigs. b.iiii.^v–c.i.^r.
15.
Eden, Decades, sig. c.i.^v.
16.
Eden, Decades, sig. c.i.^r.
17.
Eden, Decades, sig. b.ii.^r.
18.
Whitney R. Jones first applied the word “crisis” to the period bookended by the Henrician and Elizabethan regimes (The Mid-Tudor Crisis, 1539–1563 (London: Macmillan, 1973)), develo** comments by Pollard that “sterility was the [era’s] conclusive note” (History of England (London: Longmans, 1919), 172), and Elton that Edward and Mary’s “total achievements would fill barely a page” (England Under the Tudors, 193), and compounding what Mary has suffered by protestant polemics. Overall, treatments of the mid-Tudor era were limited and/or negative through much of the twentieth century; even women’s and gender histories suggested that Elizabeth was England’s first queen regnant. The literature began to shift after Alan Smith’s The Emergence of a Nation State: The Commonwealth of England, 1529–1660 (London: Longman, 1984), Loades, The Mid-Tudor Crisis (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1992), and others began to question the paradigm. Following groundbreaking studies by Hoak and Bush, Loach and Alford spotted continuity from 1547 and 1553, uncovering in Edward a vital reference point for Elizabeth. See Hoak, King’s Council in the Reign of Edward VI (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); Bush, Government Policy; Loach, Edward VI; Alford, Kingship and Politics. Similarly, Mary’s popularity as a significant if much-maligned queen has recently soared, especially for those who see her as a model for Elizabeth, see Alexander Samson, “The Marriage of Philip of Habsburg and Mary Tudor and Anti-Spanish Sentiment in England” (unpublished DPhil thesis, University of London, 1999); Charles Beem, The Lioness Roared: The Problems of Female Rule in English History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); Loades, Mary Tudor: A Life (London: National Archives, 2008); Judith Richards, Mary Tudor (London: Routledge, 2008); Anna Whitelock and Alice Hunt, eds., Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Susan Doran and Thomas Freeman, eds., Mary Tudor: Old and New Perspectives (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011); John Edwards, Mary I: England’s Catholic Queen (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013); Sarah Duncan and Valerie Schutte, eds., The Birth of a Queen: Essays on the Quincentenary of Mary I (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016). Interestingly, however, in striving to link Edward and Elizabeth or Mary and Elizabeth, connections between Edward and Mary and across Edward-Mary-Elizabeth remain largely unmade.
19.
For the forfeiture of Boulogne in March 1550, see TNA SP 68/15, fols. 108^r–112^v.
20.
Alford, Kingship and Politics, 136–174. On this context, see parliamentary bill on justice, [? December 1550], TNA SP 10/11/17; Hooper to Cecil, 17 April 1551, TNA SP 10/13/13; Edward to sheriffs, 20 July 1551, TNA SP 10/13/31; urrency debasements, August 1551, TNA SP 10/13/33; Charges of war, 29 September 1552, CP 230/6; Northumberland to council, 28 December 1552, TNA SP 10/15/73; Edward to bishops, [9 June 1553], TNA SP 10/18/25.
21.
Instructions from Lord Chancellor to Thomas Alen, after 2 February 1550, TNA SP 61/2/50; George Dowdall to John Alen and Council, 22 March 1550, TNA SP 61/2/51; Wotton to Cecil, 2 January 1550/1, CP 150/140.
22.
Mason to Privy Council, 29 June 1550, in P.F. Tytler, England under the Reigns of Edward VI and Mary, 2 vols. (London: 1839), 1:301–307, at 301–302; White, “Edward in Ireland,” 204.
23.
Mason to Privy Council, 18 April 1551, in Tytler, England under Edward and Mary, 1:351–363, at 352, 351, 353.
24.
Brabazon and Council to Privy Council, 26 March 1550, TNA SP 61/2/52.
25.
Remembrances for Ireland, [July] 1550, TNA SP 61/2/55.
26.
Instructions by Edward and Privy Council to St. Leger, July 1550, TNA SP 61/2/57, fols. 135^r–141^v.
27.
St. Leger to Lord Treasurer of England, 27 September 1550, TNA SP 61/2/60; St. Leger and Council to Privy Council, 21 October 1550, TNA SP 61/2/62.
28.
St. Leger to Cecil, 5 December 1550, TNA SP 61/2/67 and 19 January 1551, TNA SP 61/3/3.
29.
St. Leger to Cecil, 19 January 1551, TNA SP 61/3/3 and 23 March 1551, TNA SP 61/3/17; Browne to [Northumberland], 6 August 1551, TNA SP 61/3/45.
30.
Petition of Gerald Aylmer, John Travers and others for inhabiting Leix, [1550], TNA SP 61/2/69, fols. 198^r–199^v.
31.
Quinn, “Edward Walshe’s ‘Conjectures’ Concerning the State of Ireland [1552],” Irish Historical Studies 5, no. 20 (September 1947): 303–322, at 309.
32.
The Irish Fiants of the Tudor Sovereigns, 4 vols. (Dublin: 1994), Edw. VI, beginning with nos. 599 and 661; Dunlop, “The Plantation of Leix and Offaly, “English Historical Review 6, no. 21 (January 1891): 61–96.
33.
Cowley’s survey of Offaly, 10 November 1550, TNA SP 61/2/65, fols. 163^r–188^v; Cowley to Lord Treasurer William Paulet, 21 February 1551, TNA SP 61/3/12.
34.
“Articles for the Expedition into Ireland,” [7 January 1551], TNA SP 61/3/2, fols. 3^r–8^v; Edward’s instructions to Croft, 25 February 1551, TNA SP 61/3/14, fols. 32^r–34^v; “At Grenewiche, the xv^th of Aprell, 1551,” APC 3:260–261.
35.
Edward to St. Leger, 24 February 1551, TNA SP 61/3/13.
36.
“Articles Expedition,” [7 January 1551], TNA SP 61/3/2; Instructions to Croft, 25 February and [?] May 1551, TNA SP 61/3/14, 32.
37.
For example, oath of McCarthy More, July 1551, TNA SP 61/3/40; Submission of Hugh McNeill Oge, 1 January 1553, TNA SP 61/4/73.
38.
Edward to Croft, 17 August 1551, TNA SP 61/3/48, fols. 136^r–144^v, at 137^r. See also Privy Council to Croft, 11 May 1551, TNA SP 61/3/23 and Council to Privy Council, 20 May 1551, TNA SP 61/3/25; Croft to [Northumberland], May 1551, TNA SP 61/3/27; Croft to Privy Council, 28 July 1551, TNA SP 61/3/38.
39.
Council to Privy Council, 10 July 1551, TNA SP 16/3/33; Cal Fiants, Edw. VI.
40.
Thomas Wood to Cecil, 24 April 1551, TNA SP 61/3/21. For example, Cal Fiants, Edw. VI, nos. 724–725.
41.
Croft to Wood, July 1551, TNA SP 61/3/39.
42.
Instructions to Wood for Privy Council, 29 September 1551, TNA SP 61/3/54, fols. 159^r–161^v; Edward to Croft, November 1551, TNA SP 61/3/73, fols. 204–213^v; Croft to Cecil, 22 December 1551, TNA SP 61/3/79.
43.
Croft to Privy Council, 6 November 1551, TNA SP 61/3/60.
44.
Privy Council to Croft, November 1551, TNA SP 61/3/70, see also Croft to Northumberland, 11 November 1551, TNA SP 61/3/63; Privy Council to Croft, 26 November 1551, TNA SP 61/3/75; Privy Council to Robert Record, November 1551, TNA SP 61/3/77; Opinion of Croft, December 1551, TNA SP 61/3/80; Assays of Irish-minted Coins, 15 January 1552, TNA SP 61/4/2; Croft and Council to Privy Council, 26 and 27 January 1552, TNA SP 61/4/4, 5; Croft to Cecil, 28 February 1552, TNA SP 61/4/14; Record to Privy Council, February 1552, TNA SP 61/4/14; Edward to Croft and Council, 7 and [10?] June 1552, TNA SP 16/4/50A, 51; Edward to William Williams and Brabazon, 13 June 1552, TNA SP 61/4/52; Report by Thomas Luttrell and Williams, August 1552, TNA SP 61/4/59.
45.
Croft to Cecil, 14, 15, 22 March 1552, TNA SP 61/4/27, 28, 31; Privy Council to Croft, 23 February 1552, TNA SP 61/4/11. See also White, “Edward in Ireland,” 206–207; Bradshaw, “Edwardian Reformation,” 92–94; Brady, Chief Governors, 46–64; Murray, Enforcing, 202–203.
46.
Privy Council to Croft and Council, 29 May 1552, TNA SP 61/4/48.
47.
“Book by Thomas Cusack,” 8 May 1552, TNA SP 61/4/43, fols. 132^r–145^v, at 135^r, 135^v.
48.
Cusack’s Book, 8 May 1522, fol. 144^v.
49.
“The coniectures of Edwarde Walshe tochinge the state of yrlande,” [1552], TNA SP 61/4/44, fols. 146^r–152^v, at 149^v.
50.
Walshe, “Coniectures,” fols. 146^r, 146^v.
51.
Walshe, “Coniectures,” fols. 149^r, 146^v.
52.
Walshe, “Report on the State of Ireland,” 1552, BL Add MS 48015, fols. 259^r–265^r, in ‘Reform’ Treatises on Tudor Ireland, ed. David Heffernan (Dublin: Irish Manuscripts Commission, 2016), 7–15.
53.
Croft never returned to Ireland, but consulted on its affairs, see Edward to Croft, 6 November 1552, TNA SP 61/4/62; Articles Sent to the Deputy, 29 November 1552, CP 151/60; Resolutions and Considerations of Privy Council, January 1553, TNA SP 61/4/75. Two 1553 “devices” complement these texts, suggesting English-born deputies (on three-year rotation with Irish-born ones) as well as English-born horsemen, gunners, and councilmen, TNA SP 61/4/82, 83.
54.
PN, 1:sig. *3^v, 3:10. See also David Loades, “Cabot, Sebastian (c. 1481/2–1557),” ODNB (2010).
55.
Lorimer, ed., English and Irish Settlements on the River Amazon, 1550–1646 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1989), 6.
56.
St. Mauris to Philip, 17 June 1546, CSPS 8:279, 29 June 1547, CSPS 9:110–116; Advices from Melun, 20 November 1547, CSPS 9:206–218; Advices from Renard, [?] November 1550, CSPS 10:184–192; M. d’Eecke to Queen Dowager, 19 July 1552, CSPS 10:542–557; “Richard Morysine to Council,” 30 June 1551, CSPF, 392; Wotton and Morysine to Council, 7 July 1551, CSPF, 402.
57.
Cabot to Charles, 15 November 1553, in English and Irish Settlement, 127–128, at 128. See also Van de Delft to Charles, 31 January, 12 April, 22 April 1550, CSPS 10:20–21, 63, 67; Jehan Scheyfve to Queen Dowager, 24 June 1550, CSPS 10:115; “Advices from Scheyfve,” [?] January 1550, CSPS 10:217; Scheyfve to Bishop of Arras, 10 April 1551, CSPS 11:31.
58.
“Ordinances, instructions, and aduertisements of and for the direction of the intended voyage for Cathay…,” PN, 3:226–230, at 226. See also “Sir Hugh Willoughby’s voyage for the discovery of Cathay,” BL Cotton MS Otho EVIII, no. 6, fols. 11^r–14^v.
59.
“Ordinances, instructions, and aduertisements,” PN, 3:226, 227.
60.
Loades, “Cabot,” DNB; James McDermott, “Willoughby, Sir Hugh (d. 1554?),” ODNB (2004).
61.
On the importance of trade (especially textile) and ship**, including to Edward, see “Reasons for Establishing a Mart in England,” 9 March 1551–1552, in Literary Remains, 2:504–510; Memoranda of council business, [? October] 1552, TNA SP 10/15/40.
62.
“Copie of the letters missiue …,” PN, 3:231, 232.
63.
“The newe Nauigation and discouerie…,” PN, 1:243–258.
64.
Mary chartered Cabot’s group, which developed into the Muscovy Company, in 1555 (PN, 1:267–272). See Thomas Stuart Willan, The Early History of the Russia Company (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1956); Willan, The Muscovy Merchants of 1555 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1953); Robert Brenner, Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London’s Overseas Traders, 1550–1653 (Princeton: Princeton University Pres, 1993); Andrews, Trade, Plunder, and Settlement.
65.
Hunt, Drama of Coronation, 111.
66.
The Diary of Henry Machyn, ed. John Gough Nichols (London: Camden Society, 1848), 37; Ambassadors in England to Emperor, 9 September 1553, CSPS 11:220; Bishop of Arras to Simon Renard, 13 September 1553, CSPS 11:231; Renard to Prince Philip, 3 October 1553, CSPS 11:262.
67.
Taverner, An oration gratulatory… (1553), quoted in Hunt, Drama of Coronation, 121.
68.
Machyn Diary, 37.
69.
“The State,” [July] 1553, TNA SP 11/1/3, fols. 5^r–v, at 5^r. See also 4 August 1553, TNA SP 11/1/5, fols. 8^r–9^v.
70.
Instructions for Council in the Marches of Wales, 23 November 1553, CP 15/127, fol. 127^r.
71.
Samson, “Marriage,” 54, 53.
72.
Ambassadors in England to Emperor, 6 August 1553, CSPS 11:150.
73.
18 August 1553, Tudor Royal Proclamations, II, no. 390.
74.
College of Arms MS I 7, quoted in Samson, “Marriage,” 56.
75.
Ambassadors to Emperor, 19 September 1553, CSPS 11:240; APC 2:30, 31.
76.
The Chronicle of Queen Jane, ed. Nichols (London: Camden Society, 1850), 31.
77.
College of Arms MS 17, fol. 71^r and La Real Biblioteca de San Lorenzo del Escorial MS V. ii. 3, fols. 437^r, as quoted in Samson, “Marriage,” 63, 64.
78.
Renard to Philip, 3 October 1553, CSPS 11:261.
79.
Appendix I, Chronicle Queen Jane, 91–100, at 93.
80.
Ambassadors in England to Mary, 24 July 1553, CSPS 11:118.
81.
Instructions by Cardinal Pole, [October or November] 1553, TNA SP 69/1, fols. 146^r–149^v.
82.
Samson, “Marriage,” 76.
83.
“Emperor’s instructions to MM. de Courrières, de Thoulouse, and Simon Renard,” 23 June 1553, CSPS 11:64.
84.
Renard to Arras, 9 September 1553, CSPS 11:228.
85.
Whether Charles and/or Philip had their sights set on expansion across the Channel is debated, see Elton, Reform and Reformation, 381; Glyn Redworth, “‘Matters Impertinent to Women’: Male and Female Monarchy under Philip II,” English Historical Review 112, no. 447 (1997): 597–613.
86.
[John Ponet?], A Warnyng for Englande conteynyng the horrible practises of the Kyng of Spayne (Emden: 1555), sigs. A2^v, A3^r, A2^r.
87.
Richards, “Mary Tudor as ‘Sole Quene’? Gendering Tudor Monarchy,” Historical Journal 40, no. 4 (December 1997), 895–924.
88.
“Events of the Kingdom of England… by Monsignor G.F. Commendone,” in The Accession, Coronation and Marriage of Mary Tudor as Related in Four Manuscripts of the Escorial, trans. C.V. Malfatti (Barcelona: Sociedad Alianza de Artes Graficas y Ricardo Fontá, 1956), 41. Circular letters for England, Wales, and Ireland gave love, honor, and preservation of the realm as rationales, [22 January] 1554, TNA SP 11/2/6, 8, fols. 8^r–9^v, 12^r–13^v.
89.
Renard to Emperor, 3 December 1553, CSPS 11:412.
90.
“Draft articles of marriage,” [7 December] 1553, TNA SP 11/1/19, fols. 50^r–54^v, at 50^r, 52^v; TRP 2:21–26.
91.
Words of William Cotman of Ightham, 23 January 1554, TNA SP 11/2/10(1), fols. 18^r–v, at 18^r.
92.
“The Vita Mariae Angliae Reginae of Robert Wingfield of Brantham,” ed. MacCulloch, Camden Fourth Series 29 (1984): 181–301, at 274. See Loades, Two Tudor Conspiracies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); Malcolm R. Thorp, “Religion and the Wyatt Rebellion,” Church History 47, no. 4 (December 1978): 363–380; William B. Robison, “The National and Local Significance of Wyatt’s Rebellion in Surrey,” Historical Journal 30, no. 4 (December 1987): 769–790; Samson, “Marriage,” 106–125.
93.
Chronicle Queen Jane, 38.
94.
Circular letters, January 1554, TNA SP 11/2/7, 8, fols. 10^r–13^v, at 12^r, 10^r.
95.
Emperor to Philip, 16 February 1554, CSPS 12:100. For religious and political fears, see Deposition, [February] 1554, TNA SP 11/3/18(i), fols. 49^r–v; Council to Wotton, 10 April 1554, TNA SP 69/4/185, fols. 7^r–12^v.
96.
Cheyne to Council, 1 February 1554, TNA SP 11/3/2, fols. 8^r–10^v, at 8^r.
97.
Ambassadors in England to Emperor, 2 August 1553, CSPS 11:131.
98.
“Oration of Queene Marie in the Guild Hall,” in John Foxe, Actes and monuments (1583), 2:1:1418. See also Levin, Heart and Stomach, 41.
99.
TRP 2:31–32.
100.
1 Mar., st. 3, c. 1 and c. 2, Statutes of Realm, 4:1:222–226, at 222, 225. See also J.D. Alsop, “The Act for the Queen’s Regal Power, 1554,” Parliamentary History 13, no. 3 (1994): 261–276; Beem, Lioness Roared.
101.
1 & 2 Phil. & Mar. c. 8, Statutes of Realm, 4:1:246–254, at 253.
102.
Federico Badoer, Venetian Ambassador with Emperor, to Doge and Senate, 27 October 1555 and 19, 26, 28 April 1556, CSPV 6:257, 460, 464, 465. See also William Wizeman, “The Religious Policy of Mary I,” in Mary Tudor, ed. Doran and Freeman, 153–170; Duffy, Fires of Faith, especially 26–28.
103.
Wotton to Philip and Mary, 10 August 1554, TNA SP 69/5, fols. 8^r–11^v, at 8^r.
104.
Armitage, “Ideological Origins,” 38; Marcus Merriman, “Elder, John (fl. 1533–1565), ODNB, 2005.
105.
Appendix X: John Elder’s Letter, Chronicle Queen Jane, 136–166, at 163, 150, 151.
106.
“Elder’s Letter,” 137, 142, 146, 156, 137.
107.
“Elder’s Letter,” 146, 149.
108.
Chronicle Queen Jane, 78, 79.
109.
“Elder’s Letter,” 164, 165, 160.
110.
Appendix XII: Verses by Winchester Scholars, Chronicle Queen Jane, 172–174, trans. Samson, “Marriage,” 232.
111.
“Elder’s Letter,” 137; Foxe, Actes and monuments, 2:1:1472; Richards, “Gendering Tudor Monarchy,” 903; Joanna Woodall, “An Exemplary Consort: Antonis Mor’s Portrait of Mary Tudor,” Art History 14, no. 2 (June 1991): 192–224.
112.
Richards, “Gendering Tudor Monarchy,” 916–917.
113.
Hooper to Bullinger, 11 April 1555, Original Letters Relative to the English Reformation, ed. Hastings Robinson, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1846), 1:114–115, at 115; A supplicacyon to the quenes maiestie (1555), 23^v–24^r; The lamentacion of England (1557), 10.
114.
Renard to Emperor, 18 September 1554, CSPS 13:60.
115.
“Deposition of William Crowe,” 11 May 1556, TNA SP 11/8/70, fols. 117^r–v, at 117^r (for others, see March-April 1556, TNA SP 11/7/52, 56 and 11/8/35, 52); Philip to Renard, 16 February 1554, CSPS 12:104; “Memoranda,” [before 14 January] 1555, TNA SP 11/5/1, 2, fols. 1^r–3^v.
116.
APC 5:53; “Things done in council since the beginning of September,” 1555, TNA SP 11/6/18, fols. 27^r–v; “Instructions for my lorde Previsel,” [1554?] BL Cotton Vesp. F.III., fol. 23^r. See also “Instructions given by the King and Queen,” 30 May 1555, SP 69/6, fols. 108^r–110^v; “Directions of Q. Mary,” 29 August 1555, BL Cotton Tit. B/II, fols. 160^r–161^v; Philip to Council, 15 October 1555, TNA SP 11/6/30; Hoak, “Two Revolutions in Tudor Government: The Formation and Organisation of Mary I’s Privy Council,” in Revolution Reassessed, ed. Christopher Coleman and Starkey (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 87–115; Loades, “Philip II and the Government of England,” in Law and Government Under the Tudors, ed. Cross, Loades, and Scarisbrick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 177–194; Redworth, “Matters Impertinent”; Kamen, Philip of Spain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997); Harry Kelsey, Philip of Spain, King of England: The Forgotten Sovereign (London: I.B. Tauris, 2012); Geoffrey Parker, Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014).
117.
Mary to Emperor, 7 December 1554, CSPS 13:125.
118.
“Ireland Declared a Kingdom (1555),” in “Miscellanea Vaticano-Hibernica, 1420–1630,” ed. J. Hagan, Archivium Hibernicum 4 (1915), 215–318, at 217.
119.
“Out of the History of the Council of Trent,” 1554, Cal Carew 1:205.
120.
Bale, The vocacyon of Ioha[n] Bale (1553), 22^v, 23^r–v, 27^r.
121.
Renard to Emperor, 3 December 1553, CSPS 11:412.
122.
Vannes to Council, 3 November 1553, TNA SP 69/2, fols. 2^r–5^v, at 2^v–3^r.
123.
de Ocampo, Los Cinco Libros primeros de la Cronica general de España (Medina del Campo, 1553), quoted in Samson, “Marriage,” 82 (my translation).
124.
“Treatise for the Reformation of Ireland,” [1554–1555?], CP 201/116, fols. 116^r–123^v, at 116^r–v.
125.
“Treatise,” fol. 117^r.
126.
“Treatise,” fols. 117^v–118^r, at 118^r.
127.
“Treatise,” fols. 119^r–120^v.
128.
See also Brendan Bradshaw, ‘And so began the Irish Nation’: Nationality, National Consciousness and Nationalism in Pre-Modern Ireland (London: Routledge, 2016), 295–311.
129.
“From the Queen to the Lord Deputy,” in Calendar of the Patent and Close Rolls of Chancery in Ireland, of the Reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, ed. James Morrin, 2 vols. (Dublin: 1861), 1:300–304, at 301–302; Browne to Warwick, 6 August 1551, TNA SP 61/3/45.
130.
“From the Lords of the Council in England to their loving friends the Lord Chief Justice of the Queen’s Highness’s realm of Ireland, and the rest of the Council there,” Cal Patents Ireland, 1:304–305, at 304; “Grant to George, Archbishop of Armagh,” Cal Patent Ireland, 1:315.
131.
Instructions from Mary to St. Leger and council, [October] 1533, TNA SP 62/1/2, fols. 3^r–8^v, at 3^r.
132.
Mary and Philip to St. Leger, Cusack, and council, 18 and 23 February 1554, Cal Patent Ireland, 1:327–329, at 327. Interestingly, several appointments and grants were made in explicit appreciation of service rendered, trustworthiness shown, and experience gained under her father and brother, see Mary to St. Leger and Cusack, 16 October 1553, 13 December 1553, and 1 June 1554, Cal Patent Ireland, 1:300, 317, 337.
133.
Murray, Enforcing the Reformation, 219.
134.
Dowdall, “Opinion Toucheinge Irelande,” July 1558, BL Harl. MS 35, fols. 195^r–204^v, in “The Archbishop of Armachane’s Opinion touchinge Ireland,” ed. Thomas Gogarty, Journal of the County Louth Archeological Society 2, no. 2 (September 1909): 149–164, at 156, 154, 156, 158, 156. He also penned “Articles submitted to the Privy Council by the Primate of Armagh,” 30 May 1558, TNA SP 62/2/44, fols. 89^r–102^v.
135.
“Reasons for the Repair of Lord Deputy Sentleger into England,” [April 1556], TNA SP 62/1/10.
136.
MacCaffrey, “Radcliffe, Thomas, third Earl of Sussex (1526/7–1583),” ODNB, 2008.
137.
Quinn, “Ireland and Sixteenth-Century European Expansion,” Historical Studies 1 (1958): 20–32; Brady, Chief Governors, 68; Redworth, “Matters Impertinent,” 605; “Notes of Remembrance,” [April 1556], TNA SP 62/1, fols. 34^r–35A^v; “Commission of Philip and Mary granting to Sir Henry Sydney the office of Vice-Treasurer and Receiver General of Ireland,” 27 April 1556, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 36^r–49^v; “A present remedy for Reformation of the North and the Rest of Ireland,” 1556, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 50^r–v; “Orders for Leix,” TNA SP 62/1, fols. 62^r–63^v; “Orders for the holding of the English that shall be placed in Leix,” 1556, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 64^r–65^v; “The consignation of Leix,” 1556, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 66^r–67^v; “Thomas Radeclyff Lord Fitzwauter,” 2 January 1557, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 69^r–70^v; “Opinions of Lord Fylzwauter on the above articles,” 1557, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 72^r–74^v; “Instructions to the Earl of Sussex,” 20 March 1558, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 51^r–56^v.
138.
“Instructions to Lord Fitzwalter, Deputy, and the Council,” 28 April 1556, Cal Carew, 1:206.
139.
Orders for Planting Leix and Offaly, [May? 1556], quoted in Dunlop, “Plantation,” 67–68.
140.
Sussex to Mary, 2 January 1557, TNA SP 62/1/22(ii).
141.
Mason to Earl of Devon, 29 March 1556, TNA SP 11/7/40, fols. 78^r–79^v, at 79^r. See also Wotton to Council, 4 November 1553, TNA SP 69/2/66, fols. 12^r–23^v; “Journey made by the Earl of Sussex,” 8 August 1556, TCD MS 1087, fols. 121^r–139^v; Council Summary, [April?] 1556, TNA SP 11/9/35.
142.
Dowdall to Nicholas Heath and Privy Council, 17 November 1557, TNA SP 62/1/61, fols. 172^r–173^v, at 172^r.
143.
“Act for the Disposition of Leix and Offalie,” Statutes at Large, 1:240–241.
144.
“Act whereby the King and Queen’s Majesties…be entituled to the Countries of Leix, Slewmarge, Irry, Glinmaliry, and Offaily…,” Statutes at Large 1:241–244. For grants that followed, see TCD MS 808, fols. 2^r–15^r.
145.
“Act declarynge that the Regall Power of this Realme is in the Queene’s Majestie…,” Statutes at Large 1:[8–9], at [9].
146.
J.C. Calvete de Estrella, El felicissimo Viaje d’el muy alto y muy poderoso Pincipe Don Phelippe, quoted in Samson, “Marriage,” 79; “Letter relating Philip’s voyage,” July 1554, CSPS, 13:11; “Elder’s Letter,” 137–138.
147.
Renard to Charles, 8 November 1553, CSPS 11:347–348.
148.
From Mary’s accession, Cabot tried to play the alliance and his relationship with both sides to his advantage, see Charles to Mary, 9 September 1553, TNA SP 69/1, fols. 66^r–v.
149.
Eden, Decades, sigs. a.i.^r–d.iii.^v, at d.ii.^v.
150.
Eden, Decades, 118^v–119^r, 104^r.
151.
Letters Patent, 26 February 1555, TNA SP 11/5/4, fols. 8^r–17^v, at 9^r.
152.
Patent, 26 February 1555, TNA SP 11/5/4, fol. 14^v. Philip and Mary to Ivan IV, April 1557, TNA SP 69/10, fols. 84^r–88^v, 90^r–93^v, called sea voyaging a godly means to increase Catholicism and profit.
153.
Hadfield, “Eden.”
154.
Declaration, [after 24 December] 1554, TNA SP 11/4/36; Memorials, 1555, TNA SP 11/6/19; Mason to Wotton, 17 December 1555, TNA SP 69/7, fols. 134^r–138^v; Deposition of William Draper, 11 March 1556, TNA SP 11/7/17; Council Resolution, 8 January 1557, TNA SP 11/10/1; “List of Ships,” [13 July] 1557, TNA SP 11/11/35; “Ships thought meet,” 22 May 1558, TNA SP 11/13/11(i); “Council to certain ports,” [13] July 1557, TNA SP 11/11/38; Mary to Cheyne, 3 June 1558, TNA SP 11/13/23. See also Thomas Glasgow, Jr., “Maturing of Naval Administration, 1556–1564,” Mariner’s Mirror 56 (1970): 3–26; Loades and Knighton, ed., The Navy of Edward VI and Mary I (Burlington: Ashgate, 2011); Benjamin W.D. Redding, “English Naval Expansion under the French Threat, 1555–1564,” International Journal of Maritime History 28, no. 4 (November 2016): 640–653.
155.
Renard to Philip, 3 October 1553, CSPS 11:263.
156.
Council to Wotton, 7, 28 December 1553, TNA SP 69/2/95, 115; Wotton to Petre, 26 January 1554, TNA SP 69/3/139; Deposition, [February] 1554, TNA SP 11/3/18(i).
157.
Philip and Mary to William Paulet, 22 May 1557, TNA SP 11/10/61/2, fols. 74^r–v, at 74^r. See also Council to Wotton, 10 April 1554, TNA SP 69/4/185; Mason to Mary, 12 May 1554, TNA SP 69/4/203; Wotton to Council, 12 December 1554, TNA SP 69/5/300; Mason to Mary, 11 April 1555, TNA SP 69/6/344; Wotton to Mary, 20 October, 12 November, 30 November 1556, TNA SP 69/9/550, 556, 559; Council to Philip, [22] November 1556, TNA SP 11/9/50; Notes by Wotton, [before 4] April 1557, TNA SP 69/10/237; Mary to Wotton, 27 April 1557, TNA SP 69/10/593; Instructions to William Howard, 29 May 1557, TNA SP 11/10/64–65; Mary to [?], [9 August] 1557, TNA SP 15/8/34; “Instructions,” 19 September 1557, TNA SP 69/11/665.
158.
Howard to Paulet, 22 June 1557, TNA SP 11/11/14, fols. 25^r–26^v, at 25^r. See also List of Ships, 29 May and 6 June 1557, TNA SP 11/10/67, 11/11/2; Muster lists, 2 June 1557, TNA SP 11/11/19; Proclamation licensing privateers, [9 June] and 8 July 1557, TNA SP 11/11/24, 25; Warrants and charges, 1557, BL Stowe MS 571, fols. 78^r–132^v; Davies, “England and the French War, 1557–9” in The Mid-Tudor Polity, c. 1540–1560, ed. Loach and Robert Tittler (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980), 159–185; Redworth, “Philip (1527–1598),” ODNB (2011). Mary described the war as against French and Scots, for example, [September] 1557, TNA SP 11/11/655; Council to Thomas Percy, 8 January 1558, TNA SP 15/8/63; Mary to Howard, 19 January 1558, TNA SP 11/12/23.
159.
Mary to “the Special Gentlemen in every Shire,” [7 January] 1558, TNA SP 11/12/6, fol. 17^r. “Burghley’s Journal,” 1558, CP 229/2.
160.
Grafton, Chronicle, 2:558, 563, 566. For attempts to regain Calais, see “Lord Clinton,” [1558], CP 2/17; Mary to Cheyne, [12 January] 1558, TNA SP 11/12/38; Mary to Commissioners, 17 January 1558, TNA SP 11/12/22; Wotton to Mary, 26 September 1558, TNA SP 69/13/824; Wotton to Council, 29 October 1558, TNA SP 69/13/849; Commissioners to Council, 18 November 1558, TNA SP 70/1/6.
161.
Camden, Annales (1625), sig. (a)2^v. See also David Grummitt, “Three Narratives of the Fall of Calais in 1558: Explaining Defeat in Tudor England,” in Representing War and Violence, 1250–1600 (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2006), 178–190.
162.
Grafton, Chronicle, 2:567. The Passage of our most drad Soveraigne Lady Quene Elyzabeth… (1559); Hunt, Drama Coronation, 146–172; King, Tudor Iconography, 227–233.
163.
“Negotiations with France,” 29 January 1559, TNA SP 70/2, fols. 73^r–76^v, at 76^r. See also “Instructions to English Commissioners,” 23 November 1558, TNA SP 70/1, fols. 17^r–22^v; “Instructions for Cavalcante,” BL Cotton Calig. E/V, fols. 60^r–62^v. England conceded the loss in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrensis, April 1559, see TNA SP 70/3, fols. 115^r–120^v.
164.
Historie of Cambria (1584), 228; R. Brinley Jones, “Llwyd, Humphrey (1527–1568),” ODNB, 2014.
165.
Grafton, Chronicle, 1:xi, 2:158, 2:125.
166.
Grafton, Chronicle, 2:235–499, at 268, 278, 480.
167.
Grafton, Chronicle, 2:499, 1:xv, 2:500, 2:508.
168.
Hoak, “A Tudor Deborah? The Coronation of Elizabeth I, Parliament, and the Problem of Female Rule,” in John Foxe and his World, ed. Christopher Highley and King (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), 73–88; Hoak, “Iconography Imperial Crown,” 96.
169.
His full title is Actes and monuments of matters most speciall and memorable, happenyng in the Church with an vniuersall history of the same, wherein is set forth at large the whole race and course of the Church, from the primitiue age to these latter tymes of ours, with the bloudy times, horrible troubles, and great persecutions agaynst the true martyrs of Christ, sought and wrought as well by heathen emperours, as nowe lately practised by Romish prelates, especially in this realme of England and Scotland. The group’s activity is manifest in art as well as text, as Margaret Aston, King, Hoak, Strong, and Sharpe have shown, with particular reference to the Allegory of the Tudor Succession (ca. 1572, attrib. Lucas de Heere), an apparent defense of Elizabeth’s tranquil, protestant kingship that depicts Henry VIII enthroned at center in front of the Tudor coat of arms, Edward VI kneeling to receive his sword, an oversized richly appareled Elizabeth accompanied by personifications of Plenty and Peace trampling the weapons of war, and, isolated to the left of the patriarch, Mary and Philip with Mars.
170.
1 Eliz. c. 1–6, Statutes of Realm, 4:1:350–367, at 350, 356, 352.
171.
1 Eliz. c. 1, Statutes of Realm, 4:1:352.
172.
Sidney to Council, 8 February 1558, TNA SP 62/1, fols. 15^r–16^v, at 15^r, 15^v.
173.
Speech at Elizabeth’s First Parliament, Sadler SP 3:314–318, at 316.
174.
See Hunt and Whitelock, eds., Tudor Queenship.
175.
Instructions to Sussex, 16 July 1559, Cal Carew 1:218. See also “Second Year of Elizabeth,” 1560, Statutes at Large, 1:275–312; Instructions to Sussex, 4 July 1562, Cal Carew 1:235.
176.
Instructions to Sussex, 16 July 1559, TNA SP 63/1, fols. 122^r–131^v, at 123^r.
177.
“Notes of Ulster, Connaught, Munster, and Leinster,” [1560], Cal Carew 1:229; Instructions to Sussex, 17 July 1559, Cal Carew 1:220. See also Instructions to Sussex, May 1560, Cal Carew 1:223.
178.
Sussex’s Opinion, 11 September 1560, Cal Carew 1:227. See also Sussex’s Report, 1562, Cal Carew 1:236.
179.
For example, Sussex’s Report, 1562, Cal Carew 1:236; Hooker to [Peter Carew] 20 January 1573, Cal Carew 1:291.
180.
Knox, The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women (1558) in The Works of John Knox, ed. David Laing, 6 vols. (Edinburgh: 1846–1864), 4:373–428, at 394; Mason, “The Scottish Reformation and the Origins of Anglo-British Imperialism,” in Scots and Britons: Scottish Political Thought and the Union of 1603, ed. Mason (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 161–186.
181.
“A memoriall of certain pointes meete for restoring the Realme of Scotland to the Auncient Weale,” BL Lansdowne MS 4, fols. 26^r–27^v, at 26^r.
182.
“A short discussion of the weighty matter of Scotland,” August 1559, Sadler SP 1:377–383, at 378, 383; “Void Instructions for Montague and Chamberlain,” 23 January 1560, TNA SP 70/10, fols. 91^r–94^v; Sadler to Cecil, 31 March 1560, Sadler SP 1:715–716. See also Alford, The Early Elizabethan Polity: William Cecil and the British Succession Crisis, 1558–1569 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1998).
183.
Croft to Knox, 27 October 1559, Sadler SP 1:523–524, at 524.
184.
Cecil to Sadler and Croft, 12 November 1559, Sadler SP 1:566–573, at 570. See also Instructions for Lethington, 24 November 1559, Sadler SP 1:604–608; Cecil to Sadler, 24 August 1559, Sadler SP 1:402–404; Throckmorton to Cecil, 30 September 1559, CSPF 1:1408; Henry Killigrew to Council, 14 December 1559, TNA SP 70/9, fols. 76^r–79^v; [Lethington] to [?], [20 January] 1560, TNA SP 52/2, fols. 14^r–v; Thomas Randall to Sadler and Croft, 10 February 1560, Sadler SP 1:704–706; Norfolk and Council to Cecil, 19 March 1559/60, CP 138/25; Queen of Scots’ Claim to the English Crown, 5 April 1560, CP 198/11; Throckmorton to Elizabeth, 4 May 1560, TNA SP 70/14, fols. 31^r–32^v; Cecil’s Memoranda, TNA SP 52/3, fols. 237^r–v (CSPF 3:118); Council to Cecil and Wotton, 24 June 1560, CP 2/48.
185.
For English explanations (to the Scots) of why they joined the conflict, see “Articles,” 27 February 1559/60, CP 152/60; Queen’s proclamation, 24 March 1560, CP 152/73. For the complex English-Scottish-Irish relationship that followed, see Jane E.A. Dawson, “Two Kingdoms or Three? Ireland in Anglo-Scottish Relations in the Middle of the Sixteenth Century,” Scotland and England, 1286–1815, ed. Mason (Edinburgh: Donald, 1987), 113–138.
186.
Smith to Elizabeth, 2 March 1563, TNA SP 70/52, fols. 24^r–26^v, at 24^v. See also Cecil to Smith, 29 March 1562, BL Lansdowne MS 102, fols. 29^r–30^v; Throckmorton to Cecil, [18 May] 1562, TNA SP 70/37, fols. 101^r–102^v; Throckmorton to Cecil, 29 July 1562, TNA SP 70/39, fols. 190^r–191^v; Articles between Elizabeth and Prince of Condé, 19 September 1562, TNA SP 70/41, fols. 146^r–150^v; “Why the Queen puts her Subjects in Arms,” [20 September] 1562, TNA SP 70/41, fols. 193^r–197^v and 207^r–212^v; Smith to Cecil, 6 December 1562, TNA SP 70/46, fols. 72^r–75^v; MacCaffrey, “The Newhaven Expedition, 1562–1563” The Historical Journal 40, 1 (March 1997): 1–21. The regime remained attached to Calais, as a commercial hub, defensive bulwark, historic dominion, and blight on its honor, see Petition of Company of Merchant Staplers to Elizabeth, 1560, TNA SP 12/15, fols. 95^r–v; Elizabeth to Philip, [22] September 1562, TNA SP 70/41, fols. 239^r–242^v (CSPF 5:682); Elizabeth to French Ambassador, 25 October 1562, TNA SP 70/43, fols. 137^r–140^v; Throckmorton to Elizabeth, 15 December 1562, TNA SP 70/46, fols. 192^r–195^v; Smith’s Demands, 19 December 1562, TNA SP 70/47, fols. 13^r–14^v; Elizabeth to [Warwick], [4 June] 1563, TNA SP 70/58; Paulet to Elizabeth, 29 February 1568, TNA SP 12/46, fols. 84^r–85^v; Smith to Cecil, 18 January 1572, TNA SP 77/122, fols. 81^r–87^v; Elizabeth to Charles IX, 7 May 1563, TNA SP 70/56, fols. 55^r–56^v; Cecil’s Memorial, BL Cotton Calig. C/I, fols. 97^r–100^v.
187.
Killigrew to Cecil, 10 August 1562, TNA SP 70/40, fols. 101^r–110^v.
188.
John Clarke to Killigrew, 21 July 1562, TNA SP 70/39, fols. 112^r–113^v, at 112^v.
189.
Thomas Chamberlain to Elizabeth, 27 September 1561, TNA SP 70/30, fols. 111^r–114^v; “Answer to the Portuguese Ambassador’s Replication,” 15 June 1562, TNA SP 70/38, fols. 110^r–117^v.
190.
“Answer of M. Beauvoir,” [4] November 1562, TNA SP 70/44, fols. 35^r–36^v, at 35^r–v.
191.
Quinn, The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 2 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1940), 1:1–8.
192.
Jenkinson to Elizabeth, 31 May 1565, BL Cotton Galba D.IX., fols. 4^r–5^v, at fols. 4^v–5^r, 5^v; “Petition from Humphrey Gilbert to the Queen,” [1565], Voyages Gilbert, no. 1.
193.
2 Eliz., cap. 5, Statutes Realm, 4:1:422–428, at 422, 424.
194.
“Arguments, by Cecill, for increasing the navigation of England,” 1 February 1563, TNA SP 12/27, fols. 280^r–285^v, at 281^r. See also Jenynges, “On the utility to the realm by observing days for eating fish only,” BL Lansdowne MS 101, fols. 85^r–106^v; Loades, “Winter, Sir William (c.1525–1589),” ODNB (2009).
195.
Test, “The Tempest and the Newfoundland Cod Fishery,” in Global Trade Discourses and Practices of Trade in English Literature and Culture, ed. Barbara Sebek and Stephen Deng (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 201–220, at 209.
196.
Camden, Annales, 95. For earlier Stucley exploits, see Northumberland to Cecil, 7 September, October 1552, TNA SP 10/15/3, 38; Clinton to Council, 27 August 1558, TNA SP 11/13/60.
197.
Camden, Annales, 90.
198.
Elizabeth to Sussex, 30 June 1563, CP 153/147. See also correspondence between Philip and Bishop Quadra, 15 and 19 June 1563, CSPSimancas, 1:230, 233.
199.
The whole and true discouerye (1563), sigs. A.ii.^v, A.iii.^r. See also Nicholas Le Challeux, A true and perfect description, of the last voyage or nauigation, attempted by Captaine Iohn Rybaut (1566); A notable historie containing foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes vnto Florida (1587); PN, 3:301–360; Peter Holmes, “Stucley, Thomas (c. 1520–1578),” ODNB (2004); Kupperman, Jamestown Project, 45–51; Andrews, “Beyond the Equinoctial: England and South America in the Sixteenth Century,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 10, no. 1 (September 1981): 4–24. 15316; PN, 3:301–360.
200.
“The voyage made by M. Iohn Hawkins… to the coast of Guinea, and the Indies of Noua Hispania, begun in An. Dom. 1564.,” PN, 3:501–521; Williamson, Hawkins of Plymouth, 2^nd edn. (London: Black, 1969); Andrews, Trade, Plunder, Settlement; Kelsey, Sir John Hawkins, Queen Elizabeth’s Slave Trader (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003); Basil Morgan, “Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595),” ODNB (2007).
201.
“Voyage made by Hawkins… 1564,” PN, 3:501–521, at 516.
202.
De Silva to Philip, 5 November 1565, CSPSimancas 1:330.
203.
Notable historie, 51^r.
204.
Le Challeux, True and perfect description.
205.
“Petition from Humphrey Gilbert to the Queen,” [1565], Voyages Gilbert, no. 1.
206.
Jenkinson to Cecil, 26 June 1566, Voyages Gilbert, no. 3.
207.
Gilbert, A Discourse of a Discoverie (1576), sig. B.iii.^v.
208.
Gilbert, Discourse, sig. H.iii.^v.
209.
Gilbert, Discourse, sigs. D.ii.^r–D.iii.^v.
210.
Gilbert, Discourse, sigs. H.i.^r–H.ii.^v, at H.i.^r,v.
211.
Gilbert’s Petition to Elizabeth, [December 1566], TNA SP 12/42/23; William Gerrard to Cecil, 24 January 1567, TNA SP 12/45/5, fols. 16^r–19^v.
212.
Euclid, The elements of geometrie… With a very fruitfull praeface made by M. J. Dee, 9 February 1571, in Voyages Gilbert, no. 8.
213.
Quinn, Elizabethans and Irish; Canny, Elizabethan Conquest; Andrews, Canny, Hair, eds., Westward Enterprise.
214.
Elizabeth’s Irish Primer, Guinness Library, Farmleigh House, Dublin, as quoted in Hiram Morgan, “‘Never Any Realm Worse Governed’: Queen Elizabeth and Ireland,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th ser., 14 (2004): 295–308, at 296.
215.
“Acts of Parliament in Ireland” and “Acts not Extant in the Printed Book,” 1 June 1562, Cal Carew 1:233–234.
216.
Dunlop, “Plantation,” 71–73.
217.
Patent to Fitzwilliam, 1 August 1564, CP 215/13.
218.
Elizabeth to Sidney, 28 March 1566, TCD MS 745, fols. 30^r–32^r, at 31^{v, r}.
219.
Brady, Chief Governors, 116–119, at 117; “Articles of Interrogation,” 19 April 1566, TNA SP 63/17/23, fols. 63^r–64^v, at 64^r; Elizabeth to Sidney, 21 February 1566, TCD MS fols. 9^r–10^v.
220.
Elizabeth to Sidney, 16 January 1567, TCD MS 745, fols. 21^r–25^v; Instructions to Sidney, 1 May 1568, TNA SP 63/24/29; Note of Acts Passed, 28 June 1570, TNA SP 63/30/61(i); Statutes at Large, 1:312–390; V. Treadwell, “The Irish Parliament of 1569–71,” Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature 65 (1966/67): 55–89.
221.
Cecil to Sidney, 24 February 1566, TNA SP 63/16/31, fols. 75^r–76^v, at 75^r.
222.
Sidney to Council, 30 May 1566, TNA SP 63/17/69, fols. 207^r–208^v, at 207^r,v; Sidney to Robert Dudley, 1 March 1566, TNA SP 63/16/35; Sidney to Elizabeth, 20 April 1567, Letters and Memorials of State…, ed. Arthur Collins, 2 vols. (London: 1746), 1:18–31. Others also reported Sidney’s good success and conformity, see George Wyse to Cecil, 20 June 1567, TNA SP 63/21/26; Loftus to Cecil, 25 January 1568, TNA SP 63/23/18. For Leix-Offaly progress, see Elizabeth to Deputy and Chancellor, 5 March 1569, TCD MS 745, fols. 141^r–v; Notes on Maryborough, 20 March 1569, TNA SP 63/27/55.
223.
Sidney to Cecil, 3 March 1566, TNA SP 63/16/41, fols. 107^r–108^v, at 107^v.
224.
Cecil to Sidney, 3 April 1566, TNA SP 63/17/6, fols. 10^r–11^v, at 10^r.
225.
Sidney to Cecil, 9 June 1566, TNA SP 63/18/197, fols. 18^r–19^v, at 18^v. He made a similar threat on 24 June 1566, TNA SP 63/18/241, fols. 56^r–57^v.
226.
O’Neill to Charles IX and Cardinal of Lorraine, 25 April 1566, TNA SP 63/71/34, 35; O’Neill to Cardinals of Lorrain and Guise, 1 February 1567, TNA SP 63/20/22.
227.
James Fitzmaurice to Cork, 12 July 1569, TNA SP 63/29/8, fols. 12^r–v, at 12^r. Lord Chancellor Weston blamed the rebellion on the universal “lovinge of the harlott of Rome” in Ireland, see Weston to Cecil, 7 August 1570, TNA SP 63/30/78, fols. 168^r–169^v, at 168^v. See also Anthony M. McCormack, “Fitzgerald, James fitz Maurice (d. 1579),” ODNB (2008).
228.
The “Discours” survives in Cecil’s copy, [23 March] 1571, TNA SP 63/31/32, fols. 73^r–117^v. See also “Propositions by an Irishman,” 1 February 1568, TNA SP 63/23/29; Canny, “Rowland White’s ‘Discourse Touching Ireland’ c. 1569,” Irish Historical Studies 20 (1977): 439–463; Canny, “Rowland White’s ‘The Dysorders of the Irisshery’, 1571,” Studia Hibernica 19 (1979): 147–160.
229.
White, “Discours,” fols. 75^{r, v}.
230.
White, “Discours,” fol. 76^v.
231.
White, “Discours,” fol. 90^r.
232.
White, “Discours,” fol. 75^v.
233.
Elizabeth to Sidney, 28 February 1568, TCD MS 745, fols. 69^r–70^r.
234.
“Soldiers for Ireland,” 26 April 1567, CP 155/48; Cecil to Sidney, 20 July 1567, TNA SP 63/21/64.
235.
Gilbert, “The Discourse of Ireland,” 1572, Voyages Gilbert, no. 14. He also wrote “A discourse for the reformacion particularly of Munster,” 1 February 1574, BL Add MS 48015, no. 25, fols. 397^r–407^r.
236.
Gilbert, “Discourse,” 126.
237.
Turlough Luineach O’Neill’s Submission, 18 June 1567, TNA SP 63/21/22, fols. 53^r–54^v, at 53^r; Cecil to Sidney, 11 June 1567, TNA SP 63/21/13, fols. 34^r–35^v, at 34^r; Elizabeth to Sidney, 11 June 1567, TCD MS 745 fols. 83^r–88^v.
238.
Elizabeth to Sidney, 6 July 1567, TNA SP 63/21/49, fols. 109^r–114^v, at 110^{r, v}, 114^r. Soon after, the court entertained a rather detailed “Device for the Plantation of Ireland with Englishmen,” January 1568, TNA SP 63/23/26, which suggested a mix of unmarried husbandmen, married couples, artificers, plough-wrights, smiths, carpenters, fishermen, and mariners, sponsored by their parishes, be sent to live in close proximity in Ireland, eventually reducing the island and yielding crown revenue.
239.
Thomas Masterson to Knollys, 10 August 1566, TNA SP 63/18/78, fols. 178^r–179^v, at 178^r.
240.
“Knollys’ Opinions on Ireland,” 7 July 1567, TNA SP 63/21/56, fols. 129^r–v, at 129^r.
241.
Elizabeth to Sidney, 6 June 1569, TCD MS 745, fols. 145^r–148^v, at 145^v; Sidney to Cecil, 20 November 1568, TNA SP 63/26/18, fols. 71^r–75^v; Cecil to Sidney, 6 January 1569, TNA SP 63/27/2; Quinn, Voyages Gilbert, 14.
242.
“Offers of English subjects,” 12 February 1569, TNA SP 63/27, fols. 52^r–54^v, at 53^r. See also “Offers for the lands in Munster,” November 1568, TNA SP 63/26/52, 53; Discourse on abolition of coign and livery, 1568, TNA SP 63/26/68; Warham St. Leger to Elizabeth, 14 February 1569, TNA SP 63/27/23; Elizabeth to Sidney, 30 June 1570, TCD MS 745, fols. 182^r–183^v.
243.
Elizabeth to Sidney, 6 June 1569, TCD MS 745, fols. 145^r–148^v, at 146^r; “Second book and offer to Sir Thomas Gerrard and company for the planting of the Glens and part of Clandeboye,” 15 March 1570, TNA SP 63/30/32, fols. 62^r–63^v; Quinn, “The First Pilgrims,” William and Mary Quarterly 23, no. 3 (July 1966): 359–390, at 360–361.
244.
Petitions to council and “Items allowable,” [12 April] [1569], TNA SP 63/28/2, 3; Petitions and answers to council, [June] [1569], TNA SP 63/28/61; Elizabeth to Sidney, 9 July 1569, TCD MS 745, fols. 157^r–158^v.
245.
Sidney to Cecil, 30 June 1569, TNA SP 63/28/58, fols. 131^r–132^v, at 132^r.
246.
Wilford to Cecil, 16 February 1567, TNA SP 63/20/32, fols. 70^r–71^v, at 70^r.
247.
Gilbert to Sidney, 6 December 1569, TNA SP 63/29/83, fols. 177^r–180^v, at 178^r. Thomas Churchyard described the Munster campaign in A Generall Rehearsall of Warres (1579).
248.
Gilbert to Cecil, 12 July 1569, TNA SP 63/29/9, fols. 13^r–14^v, at 13^r.
249.
“George Gascoigne Esquire to the Reader,” in Gilbert, Discourse, sigs. ¶.iij.^v, ¶.iiij.^v, ¶.ij.^v.
250.
Commission and Instructions, 22 March 1567, TNA SP 70/89, fols. 65^r–66^v, 70^r–73^v; Negotiations for Calais, 10 May 1567, TNA SP 70/90, fols. 41^r–44^v. Cecil informed Sidney of the mission, 23 April 1567, TNA SP 63/20/67.
251.
“The Petition of Thomas Smythe and his Associates, [c. 1570],” in Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Manuscripts of Lord de L’Isle and Dudley preserved at Penhurst Palace, ed. C.L. Kingsford (London: Stationery Office, 1934), 2:12–15, at 12.
252.
Smith, A Discourse of the Common Weal of This Realm of England (1581), ed. Elizabeth Lamond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1893), fol. 10^r.
253.
Smith, Discourse, fols. 10^r–v.
254.
Smith, Discourse, especially fols. 10^r–v, 27^r–28^r, 36^r–37^v, 46^v, 78^v.
255.
Smith, De republica Anglorum (1583).
256.
Smith to Cecil, 7 November 1565, TNA SP 70/81, fols. 6^r–7^v, at 6^v.
257.
White to Burghley, 23 March 1571, TNA SP 63/31, fols. 67^r–68^v.
MacCaffrey, “Cecil, William, first Baron Burghley (1520/1–1598),” ODNB (2004); Ian W. Archer, “Smith, Sir Thomas (1513–1577),” ODNB (2008); Rory Rapple, “Gilbert, Sir Humphrey (1537–1583),” ODNB (2012); MacCaffrey, “Sidney, Sir Henry (1529–1586),” ODNB (2008).
258.
Thevet, The new found worlde, or Antarctike… (1568), sig. *.ii.^v.
259.
Thevet, New found worlde, sigs. *.ii.^r, *.iii.^r.
260.
Thevet, New found worlde, fols. 34^r, 36^r, sig. *.ii.^r.
261.
Thevet, New found worlde, fol. 122^r.
262.
Philip P. Boucher, “Revisioning the ‘French Atlantic’: or, How to Think about the French Presence in the Atlantic, 1550–1625,” in The Atlantic World and Virginia, 1550–1624, ed. Peter Mancall (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 274–306, at 290–291; Morgan, “Hawkins”; Kelsey, Hawkins, 71–93; Martin van Gelderen, The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); G.D. Ramsay, The Queen’s Merchants and the Revolt of the Netherlands (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986). For useful comment on some of these concerns, see Guerau De Spes to Philip, 12 March 1569, CSPSimancas 2:88.
263.
Luis de Quirós and Juan Baptista de Segura to Juan de Hinistrosa, 12 September 1570, in Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1953), 89–92, at 90.
264.
MacLaren, “Gender, Religion, and Early Modern Nationalism,” American Historical Review 107, no. 3 (June 2002): 739–767, at 758. See also Guy, Queen of Scots: The True Life of Mary Stuart (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), 450–451.

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Hower, J.S. (2020). “Recouer thyne aunciente bewtie”: Mid-Tudor Empire over Mid-Tudor Crisis, 1550–1570. In: Tudor Empire. Britain and the World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62892-5_5

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