Spiritualising the War: Religion, Conflict, and Politics

Rzepa, Joanna

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-61530-7_3

Joanna Rzepa⁴

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Modern European Literature ((PMEL))

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Abstract

This chapter focuses on the period from 1914 to 1945 and examines the dynamic interface of religion, culture, and politics. It discusses the spiritual revival brought about by World War 1 and its impact on the religious and political discourse of the interwar period. It shows that while World War 1 put an end to much of the transnational collaboration that sustained the project of theological modernism, the idiom generated by the modernist crisis found extensive use in wartime propaganda. It demonstrates that the politics of the interwar period, which saw a resurgence of nationalism and antisemitism, engaged religion in explicit ways. Christian intellectuals saw both fascism and communism as godless ideologies and framed both World War 1 and World War 2 as essentially religious wars. Religious language added a metaphysical dimension to the military conflicts and served to mobilise society by solemnising the war. This, as the chapter shows, had a significant impact on how the ongoing persecution and extermination of European Jews were understood and explained by contemporary Christian intellectuals.

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Notes

1.
Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 54.
2.
George M. Johnson, Mourning and Mysticism in First World War Literature and Beyond: Grappling with Ghosts (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).
3.
Pat Jalland, Death in War and Peace: Loss and Grief in England, 1914–1970 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 15–82.
4.
Adrian Gregory, The Silence of Memory: Armistice Day, 1919–1946 (London: Bloomsbury, 1994), 19.
5.
Winter, 28.
6.
The Parliamentary Debates: Official Report, House of Lords, 5th series (London: 1909–), vol. 69: Third Session of the Thirty-Fourth Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Fourth Volume of Session 1927 (1928), 782.
7.
Winter, 59–61.
8.
Annette Becker, War and Faith: The Religious Imagination in France, 1914–1930, trans. Helen McPhail (Oxford: Berg, 1998), 65.
9.
Ferdinand Belmont, A Crusader of France: The Letters of Captain Ferdinand Belmont of the Chasseurs Alpins (August 2, 1914–December 28, 1915), trans. G. Frederic Lees (London: Andrew Melrose, 1917), 109. The phrase ‘return to the altars’ is used by Becker, 106–107.
10.
Quoted in Becker, 22.
11.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ‘The Spiritual Power of Matter,’ in Hymn of the Universe, trans. Gerald Vann (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), 53–70.
12.
Ibid., 65–67.
13.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, ‘Cosmic Life,’ in Writings in Time of War, trans. René Hague (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 59.
14.
Quoted in Becker, 23.
15.
Robert Musil, ‘The Blackbird,’ in Posthumous Papers of a Living Author, trans. Peter Wortsman (Brooklyn, NY: Archipelago Books, 2006), 145–169.
16.
Ibid., 158.
17.
Ibid., 159.
18.
Ibid., 159–160.
19.
Ibid., 160.
20.
Ibid.
21.
Becker, 51.
22.
André Breton, ‘Manifesto of Surrealism (1924),’ in Manifestoes of Surrealism, trans. Richard Seaver and Helen R. Lane (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1972), 6–10.
23.
Ibid., 14–15.
24.
Ibid., 14.
25.
See Stephen Schloesser, Jazz Age Catholicism: Mystic Modernism in Postwar Paris, 1919–1933 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005); and Edward Baring, Converts to the Real: Catholicism and the Making of Continental Philosophy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).
26.
Evelyn Underhill, Practical Mysticism: A Little Book For Normal People (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1914), ix.
27.
Ibid., x.
28.
May Sinclair, A Defence of Idealism: Some Questions and Conclusions (New York: Macmillan, 1917), 269.
29.
Ibid.
30.
Ibid.
31.
Max Scheler, On the Eternal in Man, trans. Bernard Noble (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1972), 124–125.
32.
Ibid., 125.
33.
John Middleton Murry, God: Being an Introduction to the Science of Metabiology (London: Jonathan Cape, 1929), 16–17.
34.
John Middleton Murry, ‘The Sign-Seekers,’ in The Evolution of an Intellectual (London: Jonathan Cape, 1927), 15–16.
35.
Ibid., 19, 23.
36.
John Middleton Murry, ‘Realism,’ in The Evolution of an Intellectual, 99, 111–112.
37.
Georges Bernanos, The Diary of a Country Priest, trans. Pamela Morris (London: Boriswood, 1937), 261–262.
38.
Ibid., 262.
39.
Ibid., 151.
40.
Kenneth Oakes, Reading Karl Barth: A Companion to Karl Barth’s Epistle to the Romans (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2011).
41.
Karl Barth, A Unique Time of God: Karl Barth’s WWI Sermons, trans. William Klempa (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2016). See also John Howard Yoder, Karl Barth and the Problem of War, and Other Essays on Barth (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2003).
42.
Karl Barth, ‘The Righteousness of God,’ in The Word of God and the Word of Man, trans. Douglas Horton (New York: Harper & Row, 1957), 18.
43.
Barth, A Unique Time of God, 111.
44.
Quoted in John McConnachie, ‘The Teaching of Karl Barth: A New Positive Movement in German Theology,’ Hibbert Journal 27 (1926–1927): 385.
45.
Karl Barth, The Epistle to the Romans, trans. from the 6th edition by Edwyn C. Hoskyns (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 49–50.
46.
Ibid., 185.
47.
Stephen Spender, ‘Remembering Eliot,’ Encounter 24, no. 4 (1965): 5.
48.
Schloesser, 7–8.
49.
See Philip Jenkins, The Great and Holy War: How World War I Became a Religious Crusade (New York: HarperOne, 2014); Alan Wilkinson, The Church of England and the First World War, 3rd edn (Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 2014); Jonathan H. Ebel, Faith in the Fight: The American Soldier and the Great War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); and Annette Becker, War and Faith: The Religious Imagination in France, 1914–1930, trans. Helen McPhail (Oxford: Berg, 1998).
50.
Pope Benedict XV, ‘Ad Beatissimi Apostolorum,’ in The Papal Encyclicals, ed. Claudia Carlen, vol. 3 (Washington, DC: McGrath, 1981), 149.
51.
Ibid.
52.
Quoted in George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Sha** of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, 1870–1925, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 148.
53.
Ibid.
54.
‘Return to the Dark Ages,’ King’s Business 9.5 (1918): 365–366.
55.
Quoted in Becker, 11.
56.
Jacques Maritain, Three Reformers: Luther-Descartes-Rousseau [n.trans.] (London: Sheed & Ward, 1928).
57.
Max Scheler, Der Genius des Krieges und der Deutsche Krieg (Leipzig: Weissen Bücher, 1915). See also Rainer Schäfer, ‘Scheler’s Metaphysics of War,’ Tijdschrift voor Philosophie 79 (2017): 801–817.
58.
La Guerre Allemande et le Catholicisme, ed. Alfred Baudrillart (Paris: Bloud et Gay, 1915).
59.
See Claus Arnold ‘La Guerre Allemande et le Catholicisme (1915)—Katholisch-Theologische Kriegsarbeit und die Nachwirkungen der Modernismuskrise,’ in Katholiken im langen 19. Jahrhundert. Akteure—Kulturen—Mentalitäten. Festschrift für Otto Weiß, ed. Dominik Burkard and Nicole Priesching (Regensburg: Pustet, 2014), 299–311.
60.
Deutsche Kultur, Katholizismus und Weltkrieg. Eine Abwehr des Buches ‘La Guerre Allemande et le Catholicisme’, ed. Georg Pfeilschifter (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1915).
61.
Joseph Sauer, ‘Kunst und heilige Stätten im Kriege,’ in Deutsche Kultur, Katholizismus und Weltkrieg, 173–233.
62.
Quoted in Claus Arnold, ‘Joseph Sauer—A German ‘Modernist’ in War Time,’ in Roman Catholic Modernists Confront the Great War, ed. C. J. T. Talar and Lawrence F. Barmann (New York: Palgrave Pivot, 2015), 117–118.
63.
It was published in both German and French: Joseph Sauer, Die Zerstörung von Kirchen und Kunstdenkmälern an der Westfront (Freiburg i. Br.: B. Herder, 1917) and La destruction d’églises et de monuments d’art sur le front ouest (Freiburg i. Br.: B. Herder, 1917).
64.
Quoted in Arnold, 118.
65.
Quoted in Arnold, 115.
66.
Roger Griffin, Modernism and Fascism: The Sense of Beginning under Mussolini and Hitler (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 162.
67.
Aldous Huxley, Stories, Essays & Poems (London: J.M. Dent, 1960), 281–282.
68.
Carl Schmitt, Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty, trans. George Schwab (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), 36. See also Gavin Rae ‘The Theology of Carl Schmitt’s Political Theology,’ Political Theology 17, no. 6 (2016): 555–572.
69.
Schmitt, 36–37.
70.
Ibid., 49–50.
71.
Rae, 559.
72.
Claudia Koonz, The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 60.
73.
Eric Voegelin, ‘The Political Religions,’ trans. Virginia Ann Schildhauer, in The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 5: Modernity Without Restraint, ed. Manfred Henningsen (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2000), 30.
74.
Ibid., 60.
75.
Ibid., 59.
76.
Ibid., 60.
77.
Ibid., 62.
78.
Ibid., 64.
79.
Ibid., 66. For a comparison of Schmitt’s and Voegelin’s theories, see Thierry Gontier, ‘From “Political Theology” to “Political Religion”: Eric Voegelin and Carl Schmitt,’ The Review of Politics 75 (2013): 25–43.
80.
Christopher Dawson, ‘General Introduction,’ in Jacques Maritain, Peter Wust and Christopher Dawson, Essays in Order (New York: Macmillan, 1931), vi.
81.
Michael Sutton, Nationalism, Positivism, and Catholicism: The Politics of Charles Maurras and French Catholics, 1890–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
82.
Jacques Maritain, Saint Thomas Aquinas, trans. and revised by Joseph W. Evans and Peter O’Reilly (New York: Meridian 1958), 16, 19.
83.
Jacques Maritain, Three Reformers: Luther-Descartes-Rousseau [n.trans.] (London: Sheed & Ward, 1928), 95.
84.
Ibid., 96.
85.
Ibid., 136–137.
86.
See Sutton, 123–201.
87.
Oscar L. Arnal, Ambivalent Alliance: The Catholic Church and the Action Française, 1899–1939 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985).
88.
Quoted in Arnal, 125.
89.
Julien Benda, The Treason of the Intellectuals (La trahison des clercs), trans. Richard Aldington (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1969), 22.
90.
Ibid. Emphasis in the original.
91.
Ibid., 38.
92.
Ibid., 45.
93.
Ibid., 183.
94.
James Chappel, Catholic Modern: The Challenge of Totalitarianism and the Remaking of the Church (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2018), 11. Emphasis in the original.
95.
Pope Pius XII, ‘Divino Afflante Spiritu,’ in The Papal Encyclicals, ed. Claudia Carlen, vol. 4 (Washington, DC: McGrath, 1981), 73.
96.
Chappel, 60.
97.
Jacques Maritain, The Twilight of Civilization, trans. Lionel Landry (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1943).
98.
Ibid., 18.
99.
Ibid., 20.
100.
Nicolas Berdiaeff [Nicolas Berdyaev], World Fellowship through Religion: The Brotherhood of Man and the Religions (London: The World Congress of Faiths, [1938]), 9.
101.
T. S. Eliot, ‘Last Words,’ in The Complete Prose of T. S. Eliot: The Critical Edition, vol. 5, ed. Iman Javadi, Ronald Schuchard, and Jayme Stayer (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 661.
102.
The Moot Papers: Faith, Freedom and Society 1938–1944, ed. Keith Clements (London: Bloomsbury, 2009), 114.
103.
Douglas Woodruff, ‘Religion and Patriotism,’ The Sword of the Spirit Bulletin, April 16, 1942, p. 1.
104.
Simone Weil, Selected Essays, 1934–1943: Historical, Political, and Moral Writings, trans. Richard Rees (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2015), 211.
105.
Ibid., 214, 218.
106.
‘Moral Rearmament,’ The Times, September 1, 1938, p. 7. See also Moral Rearmament: The Battle for Peace, ed. H. W. Austin (London: Heinemann, 1938).
107.
Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War II (London: Allen and Unwin, 1979), 151.
108.
Ibid.
109.
UK Parliament, Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 16 November 1939, vol. 353, cols. 929–930. https://www.parliament.uk/.
110.
UK Parliament, Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 27 February 1940, vol. 357, col. 1975; and 11 April 1940, vol. 116, col. 95. https://www.parliament.uk/.
111.
Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, Viscount Halifax, Speeches on Foreign Policy by Viscount Halifax (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1940), 363.
112.
Ibid., 364–365.
113.
Winston Churchill, Into the Battle (London: Cassell, 1943), 248–249.
114.
Philip Williamson, ‘Christian Conservatives and the Totalitarian Challenge, 1933–40,’ English Historical Review 115, no. 462 (2000): 608.
115.
‘The Nation at Prayer,’ The Times, September 30, 1939, p. 7.
116.
See Tom Lawson, The Church of England and the Holocaust: Christianity, Memory and Nazism (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2006); and Ulrike Ehret, Church, Nation and Race: Catholics and Antisemitism in Germany and England, 1918–1945 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2013).
117.
See Shmuel Almog, Nationalism and Anti-Semitism in Modern Europe 1815–1945 (Oxford: Pergamon, 1990); William I. Brustein, Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Albert S. Lindemann, Esau’s Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Blood and Homeland: Eugenics and Racial Nationalism in Central and Southeast Europe, 1900–1940, ed. Marius Turda and Paul Weindling (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2007).
118.
See, for example, Todd H. Weir, ‘The Specter of “Godless Jewry”: Secularism and the “Jewish Question” in Late Nineteenth-Century Germany,’ Central European History 46, no. 4 (2013): 815–849.
119.
Simon Mayers, Chesterton’s Jews: Stereotypes and Caricatures in the Literature and Journalism of G. K. Chesterton (Manchester: CreateSpace, 2013); David Lodge, ‘The Chesterbelloc and the Jews,’ in The Novelist at the Crossroads and Other Essays on Fiction and Criticism (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1971), 145–158.
120.
G. K. Chesterton, The Collected Works of G. K. Chesterton, vol. 1, ed. David J. Dooley (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1986).
121.
G. K. Chesterton, ‘An Attack from the Altars,’ in Brave New Family: G. K. Chesterton on Men and Women, Children, Sex, Divorce, Marriage and the Family, ed. Alvaro de Silva (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1990), 218–222.
122.
Ibid., 221.
123.
Ibid., 221–222.
124.
G. K. Chesterton, ‘Marriage and the Modern Mind,’ in Brave New Family, 31.
125.
G. K. Chesterton, ‘The Judaism of Hitler,’ in The End of the Armistice (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1940), 92.
126.
Ibid.
127.
Ibid., 95.
128.
Ibid. See also G. K. Chesterton, ‘The Materialist in the Mask,’ New Witness, June 30, 1922, pp. 406–407.
129.
See Richard F. Crane, Passion of Israel, Jacques Maritain, Catholic Conscience and the Holocaust (Scranton: University of Scranton Press, 2010); Jacques Maritain and the Jews, ed. Robert Royal (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994); and Robert A. Ventresca, ‘Jacques Maritain and the Jewish Question: Theology, Identity and Politics,’ Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations 2, no. 2 (2007): 58–69.
130.
Michael R. Marrus, ‘The Ambassador and the Pope: Pius XII, Jacques Maritain and the Jews,’ Commonweal 131, no. 18 (2004): 14–18.
131.
Quoted in Crane, 7.
132.
Ibid.
133.
Simon Deploige, Saint Thomas et la question juive (Louvain: Institut Supérieur de Philosophie, 1897).
134.
Ibid., 7.
135.
Ibid., 15.
136.
The essay was published in English as Jacques Maritain, ‘The Mystery of Israel,’ in Ransoming the Time, trans. Harry Lorin Binsse (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1941), 141–179.
137.
Ibid., 147, 149. Emphasis in the original.
138.
Ibid.
139.
Ibid., 153.
140.
Ibid., 154.
141.
Ibid., 155.
142.
Ibid., 156. Emphasis in the original.
143.
Ibid. Emphasis in the original.
144.
Ibid.
145.
Ibid., 164. Emphasis in the original.
146.
Ibid., 164–165. Emphasis in the original.
147.
Ibid., 165.
148.
Ibid., 166. Emphasis in the original.
149.
Ibid., 175.
150.
Ibid., 179.
151.
Jacques Maritain, A Christian Looks at the Jewish Question (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1939).
152.
Ibid., 20–21.
153.
Ibid., 27, 33. Emphasis in the original.
154.
Ibid., 25.
155.
Ibid., 89.
156.
Ibid., 83.
157.
Rabbi Leon Klenicki, ‘Jacques Maritain’s Vision of Judaism and Anti-Semitism,’ in Jacques Maritain and the Jews, 73; Crane, 9; John Hellman, ‘The Jews in the “New Middle Ages”: Jacques Maritain’s Anti-Semitism in Its Times,’ in Jacques Maritain and the Jews, 89.
158.
Quoted in Bernard Doering, Jacques Maritain and the French Catholic Intellectuals (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983), 159.
159.
Quoted in Klenicki, 85.
160.
Ibid.
161.
Tom Lawson, The Church of England and the Holocaust: Christianity, Memory and Nazism (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2006), 91.
162.
Christian News-Letter 173, February 17, 1943.
163.
Die Lösung der Judenfrage. Eine Rundfrage, ed. Julius Moses (Berlin: Curt Wigand, 1907).
164.
Quoted in Ulrich Baer, The Rilke Alphabet, trans. Andrew Hamilton (New York: Fordham University Press, 2014), 95.
165.
Ibid.
166.
Ibid.
167.
Rainer Maria Rilke, ‘Letter to Ilse Blumenthal-Weiss, 28 December 1921,’ in Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke, vol. 2, trans. Jane Bannard Greene and M. D. Herter Norton (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1948), 276.
168.
Ibid., 276–277. Emphasis in the original.
169.
Ibid. Emphasis in the original.
170.
Rainer Maria Rilke, ‘Letter to Ilse Blumenthal-Weiss, 25 April 1922,’ in Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke, vol. 2, 306.
171.
Ibid.
172.
Ibid.
173.
See also Baer, ‘J for Jew-boy,’ in The Rilke Alphabet, 87–103.
174.
Ronald Schuchard, ‘My Reply: Eliot and the Foregone Conclusions,’ Modernism/modernity 10, no. 1 (2003): 57–70.
175.
Roger Kojecky, T. S. Eliot’s Social Criticism (London: Faber, 1971), 126–197; Stefan Collini, ‘The European Modernist as Anglican Moralist: The Later Social Criticism of T. S. Eliot,’ in Enlightenment, Passion, Modernity: Historical Essays in European Thought and Culture, ed. Mark S. Micale and Robert L. Dietle (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 207–229; and Steve Ellis, British Writers and the Approach of World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 17–65.
176.
See Antony Julius, T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism and Literary Form (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2003); and the contributions to the special issue of Modernism/modernity 10, no. 1 (2003).
177.
T. S. Eliot, ‘After Strange Gods,’ in The Complete Prose of T. S. Eliot: The Critical Edition, vol. 5, ed. Iman Javadi, Ronald Schuchard, and Jayme Stayer (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 20.
178.
Quoted in Hellman, 94.
179.
T. S. Eliot, ‘The Idea of a Christian Society,’ in The Complete Prose of T. S. Eliot: The Critical Edition, vol. 5, 717. See also Joanna Rzepa, ‘The “demonic forces” at Auschwitz: T. S. Eliot reads Jerzy Andrzejewski’s Roll Call,’ Modernism/modernity 26, no. 2 (2019): 329–350.
180.
Eliot, ‘After Strange Gods’, 40. Emphasis in the original.
181.
Schuchard, ‘My Reply: Eliot and the Foregone Conclusions.’
182.
Crane, 12.
183.
Deborah Hertz, ‘The Genealogy Bureaucracy in the Third Reich,’ Jewish History 11, no. 2 (1997): 53–78. See also Jonathan Freedman, The Temple of Culture: Assimilation and Anti-Semitism in Literary Anglo-America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
184.
Hertz, 54.
185.
See James Parkes, The Jew and His Neighbour: A Study in the Causes of Anti-Semitism (London: Student Christian Movement Press, 1930); The Nature of Anti-Semitism (London: The Church Overseas, 1933); A History of Antisemitism (London: Soncino Press, 1934–38).
186.
Haim Chertok, He Also Spoke as a Jew: The Life of the Reverend James Parkes (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006), 131.
187.
James Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and Synagogue: A Study in the Origins of Anti-Semitism (London: Soncino Press, 1934), 375.
188.
James Parkes, An Enemy of the People: Antisemitism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1945), 143–144.

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Joanna Rzepa

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Rzepa, J. (2021). Spiritualising the War: Religion, Conflict, and Politics. In: Modernism and Theology. Palgrave Studies in Modern European Literature. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61530-7_3

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61530-7_3
Published: 17 March 2021
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