SpringerLink
Log in

Dispersal Patterns

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Behavioural Ecology of Western Palearctic Falcons

  • 204 Accesses

Abstract

Dispersal influences species distribution as well as genetics and structure of populations. Among successive breeding seasons, distances varied both between and within individuals with female falcons more dispersed and less linked with the breeding areas than males. The proportion of migrant falcons in the population should vary yearly depending on the initial proportions of the individual conditions. This is evident in partial migratory falcons where individual conditions such as age or sex determine the migratory status. Dispersal decisions by juvenile falcons affect their immediate survival prospects and may translate into long-term fitness costs. Generally, small and large falcons show high philopatry rates, but juvenile birds dispersed more often and at longer distances. Before commencing migration, social falcons aggregate in very large communal roosts where they exploit available food sources. Natural barriers such as large water bodies, continuous forests, and deserts should represent a challenge for migrating falcons. Nevertheless, falcons are capable to cover long daily distances increasing also the frequency of nocturnal migration. Ultimately, they try to find a trade-off between the loss of energy, the distance from the non-breeding areas, and the predictable (barriers) and unpredictable (weather) constrains along their routes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
EUR 29.95
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
EUR 139.09
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
EUR 181.89
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
EUR 181.89
Price includes VAT (Germany)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free ship** worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbingh G, van Manen W (1992) Strayed red-footed falcons Falco vespertinus and dragonflies Odonata in spring 1992. Drentse Vogels 5:35–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Adriansen F, Verwinp N, Dhondt AA (1997) Are Belgian kestrels Falco tinnunculus migratory: an analysis of ringing recovery. Ring Migr 18(2):91–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/03078698.1997.9674149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adriansen F, Verwimp N, Dhondt AA (1998) Between cohort variation in dispersal distance in the European Kestrel Falco tinnunculus as shown by ringing recoveries. Ardea 86(2):147–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Agostini N, Panuccio M, Pasquaretta C (2015) Morphology, flight performance, and water crossing tendencies of Afro-Palearctic raptors during migration. Curr Zool 61(6):951–958

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Alcaide M, Serrano D, Negro JJ, Tella JL, Laaksonen T, Müller C, Gal A, Korpimäki E (2009a) Population fragmentation leads to isolation by distance but not genetic impoverishment in the phylopatric Lesser Kestrel: a comparison with the widespread and sympatric Eurasian Kestrel. Heredity 102(2):190–198. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2008.107

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alcaide M, Serrano D, Tella JL, Negro JJ (2009b) Strong philopatry derived from capture-recapture records does not lead to fine-scale genetic differentiation in lesser kestrels. J Anim Ecol 78:468–475. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01493.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alerstam T, Hedenström A, Åkesson S (2003) Long-distance migration: evolution and determinants. Oikos 103(2):247–260. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12559.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander J, Symes CT (2016) Temporal and spatial dietary variation of Amur falcons (Falco amurensis) in their South African nonbreeding range. J Raptor Res 50:276–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alon D, Granit B, Shamoun-Baranes J, Leshem Y, Kirwan GM, Shirihai H (2004) Soaring bird migration over northern Israel in autumn. Brit Birds 97:160–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Aparicio JM (2000) Differences in the diets of resident and non-resident Kestrels in Spain. Orn Fenn 77:169–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Aparicio JM, Bonal R (2002) Effects of food supplementation and habitat selection of timing of lesser kestrel breeding. Ecology 83:873–877

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baltag ES, Pocora V, Bolboača LE, Sfiča (2014) Habitat use of common kestrel (Falconiformes: Falconidae) during winter season, from Eastern Romania. J Entomol Zool Stud 2 (5):134–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Barriocanal C, Burgas D, Salvà C, Camps J (2004) Unusual concentration of the red-footed falcon Falco vespertinus in the spring migration in NE Spain. Scientia Gerundensis 27:31–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Bente PJ (1981) Nesting behavior and hunting activity of the Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus, in south central Alaska. M.S. thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernis F (1966) Ayes Migradoras lbericas, vol 3, Madrid

    Google Scholar 

  • Berthold P (2001) Bird migration: a general study, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Bijlsma RG (1990) Predation by large falcon species on wintering waders on the Banc d’Arguin, Mauritania. Ardea 78:75–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Bildstein KL, Zalles JI (2005) Old World versus New World long-distance migration in accipiters, buteos and falcons: the interplay of migration ability and global biogeography. In: Greenberg R, Marra PP (eds) Birds of two worlds: the ecology and evolution of migration. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 154–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Boedts B (2010) Observations du Faucon concolore Falco concolor dans les environs d’Antananarivo, Madagascar. Bull ABC 17(2):220–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Bondì S, Prommer M, Sarà M (2014) The diet of Saker falcon Falco cherrug overwintering in the Mediterranean (Sicily). Avocetta 38:53–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Bondì S, Guzzo E, Mascara R, Sarà M (2018) Onset of natal dispersal in Peregrine Falcon from Mediterranean islands (Italy). Ornis Hung 26(2):201–221. https://doi.org/10.1515/orhu-2018-0029

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booms TL, Talbot SL, Sage GK, McCaffery BJ, McCracken KG, Schempf PF (2011) Gyrfalcon nest site fidelity, breeding dispersal, and natal dispersal in Alaska using non-invasive genetic sampling. In: Watson RT, Cade TJ, Fuller M, Hunt G, Potapov E (eds) Gyrfalcons and ptarmigan in a changing world, vol I. The Peregrine Fund, Boise, pp 291–293. https://doi.org/10.4080/gpcw.2011.0203

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Borbáth P, Zalai T (2005) Kék vércsék (Falco ves- pertinus) őszi gyülekezése a Hevesi-síkon [Autumn roost site of Red-Footed Falcons (Falco vespertinus) in the Heves Plains]. Aquila 112:39–44. (in Hungarian with English Summary)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bounas A (2019) Premigratory moult in the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. Avocetta 43:49–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Bounas A, Sotiropoulos K (2017) Change of feeding strategy prior to migration: a comparative diet analysis in the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni). Avian Biol Res 10(1):1600714. https://doi.org/10.3184/175815617X14799886573101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bounas A, Tsiakiris R, Vlachopoulos K, Bukas N, Stara K, Sotiropoulos K (2016a) Large Premigratory Roost of Lesser Kestrels (Falco naumanni) in Ioannina City, Greece: trends, roost characteristics, and implications for conservation. J Raptor Res 50:416–421. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-15-77.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bounas A, Panuccio M, Evangelidis A, Sotiropoulos K, Barboutis C (2016b) The migration of the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni in Eastern Europe-a ringing recovery and direct observation approach. Acrocephalus 37:49–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bounas A, Tsaparis D, Gustin M, Mikulic K, Sarà M, Kotoulas G et al (2018) Using genetic markers to unravel the origin of birds converging towards pre-migratory sites. Sci Rep 8:8326. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26669-x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bounas A, Solanou M, Panuccio M, Barišić S, Bino T et al (2020) Mining citizen science data to explore stopover sites and spatiotemporal variation in migration patterns of the red-footed falcon. Curr Zool zoaa008. https://doi.org/10.1093/cz/zoaa008

  • Buij R, Gschweng M (2017) Nocturnal hunting by Eleonora’s falcons Falco eleonorae on their breeding and non-breeding grounds. Acta Ornithol 52:35–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham KK, Burnham WA (2011) Ecology and biology of Gyrfalcons in Greenland. In: Watson RT, Cade TJ, Fuller M, Hunt G, Potapov E (eds) Gyrfalcons and ptarmigan in a changing world, vol I. The Peregrine Fund, Boise, pp 1–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnham KK, Newton I (2011) Seasonal movements of Gyrfalcons Falco rusticolus include extensive periods at sea. Ibis 153:468–484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush N, Brown M, Downs CT (2008a) Effects of short-term acclimation on thermoregulatory responses of the rock kestrel, Falco rupicolus. J Therm Biol 33:425–430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush N, Brown M, Downs CT (2008b) Seasonal effects on thermoregulatory responses of the rock kestrel, Falco rupicolis. J Therm Biol 33:404–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bustamante J (1994) Behavior of colonial common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus ) during the post-fledging dependence period in southwestern Spain. J Raptor Res 28:79–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Cade TJ (1960) Ecology of the peregrine and gyrfalcon populations in Alaska. Univ Calif Publ Zool 63:151–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Calabuig G, Ortego J, Cordero PJ, Aparicio JM (2008) Causes, consequences and mechanisms of breeding dispersal in the colonial lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni. Anim Behav 76:1989–1996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canterbury G (2002) Metabolic adaptation and climatic constraints on winter bird distribution. Ecology 83(4):946–957

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catry I, Dias MP, Catry T, Afanasyev V, Fox J, Franco AM, Sutherland WJ (2011) Individual variation in migratory movements and winter behaviour of Iberian Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni revealed by geolocators. Ibis 153:154–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavé AJ (1968) The breeding of the kestrel, Falco tinnunculus L., in the reclaimed area Oostelijk Flevoland. Neth J Zool 18:313–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark WS (1985) Migration of the Merlin along the coast of New Jersey. J Raptor Res 19:85–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Corso A, Gustin M (2012) Second calendar-year Eleonora’s Falcons attending breeding colonies in Sicily. Brit Birds 105: 733–742

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox GW (1968) The role of competition in the evolution of migration. Evolution 22:180–192

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Frutos Á, Olea PP (2008) Importance of the premigratory areas for the conservation of lesser kestrel: space use and habitat selection during the post-fledging period. Anim Conserv 11:224–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Frutos Á, Olea PP, Vera R (2007) Analyzing and modelling spatial distribution of summering lesser kestrel: the role of spatial autocorrelation. Ecol Model 200:33–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Frutos Á, Olea PP, Mateo-Tomás P, Purroy FJ (2010) The role of fallow in habitat use by the Lesser Kestrel during the post-fledging period: inferring potential conservation implications from the abolition of obligatory set-aside. Eur J Wildl Res 56(4):503–511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-009-0338-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado G, Quilis V (1990) New data concerning the migration of Eleonora’s falcon Falco eleonorae. Ring Migr 11:111–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dementiev GP (1960) Der Gerfalke (Falco gyrfalco L. = Falco rusticolus L.). Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei, no. 264. A. Ziemen Verlag, Wittenberg, Germany

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson RC (1988) Habitat preferences and prey of merlins in winter. Brit Birds 81:269–274

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon A (2012) Conservation of the Saker falcon (Falco cherrug) and the use of hybrids for falconry. Aquila 119:9–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon A, Li XH, Rahman L et al (2017) Characteristics of home range areas used by Saker falcons (Falco cherrug) wintering on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Bird Cons Inter 27:525. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270916000319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon A, Ragyov D, Izquierdo D, Weeks D, Rahman L, Klisurov I (2020) Movement and survival of captive-bred saker falcons Falco cherrug released by wild hacking: implications for reintroduction management. Acta Ornithol 54(2):157–170. https://doi.org/10.3161/00016454AO2019.54.2.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dzialak MR, Lacki MJ, Larkin JL, Carter KM, Vorisek S (2005) Corridors affect dispersal initiation in reintroduced peregrine falcons. Anim Conserv 8:421–430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faccio SD, Amaral M, Martin CJ, Lloyd JD, French TW, Tur A (2013) Movement patterns, natal dispersal, and survival of Peregrine falcons banded in New England. J Raptor Res 47:246–261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fehérvári P, Lázár B, Palatitz P, Solt S, Nagy A et al (2014) Pre-migration roost site use and timing of post-nuptial migration of Red-footed falcons (Falco vespertinus) revealed by satellite tracking. Ornis Hung 22(1):36–47. https://doi.org/10.2478/orhu-2014-0009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franke A, Therrien J-F, Descamps S, Bêty J (2011) Climatic conditions during outward migration affect apparent survival of an arctic top predator, the peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus. J Avian Biol 42:544–551

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs J, Johnson JA, Mindell DP (2015) Rapid diversification of falcons (Aves: Falconidae) due to expansion of open habitats in the Late Miocene. Mol Phylogenet Evol 82:166–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2014.08.010

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gahbauer MA, Bird DM, Armstrong T (2015) Origin, growth, and composition of the recovering peregrine falcon population in Ontario. J Raptor Res 49(3):281–293. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-14-00002.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gamauf A (1987) Dreijährige Untersuchungen an einer Greifvogel-Winterpopulation im südlichen Burgenland. Egretta 30(1):24–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Gamauf A, Dosedel R (2012) Satellite telemetry of Saker falcons (Falco cherrug) in Austria: juvenile dispersal at the westernmost distribution limit of the species. Aquila 119:65–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Gangoso L, López-López P, Grande JM, Mellone U, Limiñana R et al (2013) Ecological specialization to fluctuating resources prevents long-distance migratory raptors from becoming sedentary on islands. PLoS One 8(4):e61615. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061615

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ganusevich SA, Maechtle TL, Seegar WS, Yates MA, McGrady MJ, Fuller M, Schueck L, Dayton J, Henny CJ (2004) Autumn migration and wintering areas of peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus nesting on the Kola Peninsula, northern Russia. Ibis 146:291–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • García Fernández JC (2000) Dispersión premigratoria del Cernícalo Primilla Falco naumanni en España. Ardeola 47(2):197–202

    Google Scholar 

  • Goławski A, Skibbe A, Paczuska M (2017) The effect of the habitat on wintering birds in Central Europe. Folia Zool 66:95–105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greaves JW (1968) Notes on the autumn passage of Merlin Falco columbarius in the North of Ireland. Irish Nat J 16(3):66–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood PJ (1980) Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in birds and mammals. Anim Behav 28:1140–1162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gschweng M, Kalko EKV, Querner U, Fiedler W, Berthold P (2008) All across Africa: highly individual migration routes of Eleonora’s falcon. Proc R Soc B 275:2887–2896

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hagemeijer W (1994) Largest-ever invasion of Red-footed falcon Falco vespertinus in the Netherlands in spring 1992. Limosa 67:7–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamrouni H (2007) La migration du faucon concolore (Falco concolor) et du faucon d’Eléonore (Falco eleonorae) en Tunisie. Ostrich 78:333–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heavisides A (1987) British and Irish merlin recoveries, 1911–1984. Ring Migr 8(1):29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/03078698.1987.9673899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heller M (1981) Durchzug und Verhalten des Rotfußfalken Falco vespertinus in Nordwürttemberg. Anz orn Ges Bayern 20:65–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogg P, Dare PJ, Rintoul JV (1984) Palaearctic migrants in the Central Sudan. Ibis 126:307–331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holte D, Köppen U, Schmitz-Ornés A (2016) Partial migration in a Central European raptor species: an analysis of ring re-encounter data of common kestrels Falco tinnunculus. Acta Ornithol 51(1):39–54. https://doi.org/10.3161/00016454AO2016.51.1.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horváth L (1975) Social pattern and behaviour between two Falco species (Aves). Ann Hist Nat Mus Nat Hung 67:327–331

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadjikyriakou TG, Kassara C, de Roland LR et al (2020a) Phenology, variation in habitat use, and daily activity patterns of Eleonora’s falcon overwintering in Madagascar. Landsc Ecol 35:159–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00940-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hadjikyriakou TG, Nwankwo EC, Virani MZ et al (2020b) Habitat availability influences migration speed, refueling patterns and seasonal flyways of a fly-and-forage migrant. Mov Ecol 8:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-020-0190-4

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Iankov P, Gradinarov D (2012) Conservation strategy of the Saker falcon (Falco cherrug) in Bulgaria. Aquila 119:31–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Issaka H, Brouwer J (2012) Field observations of a Saker falcon (Falco cherrug) holding a satellite transmitter on its wintering ground in Niger. Aquila 119:79–90

    Google Scholar 

  • James PC, Oliphant LW, Warkentin IG (1987) Close inbreeding in the Merlin (Falco columbarius). Wilson Bull 99(4):718–719

    Google Scholar 

  • Javed S, Douglas DC, Khan S, Shah JN, Al Hammadi AA (2012) First description of autumn migration of Sooty falcon Falco concolor from the United Arab Emirates to Madagascar using satellite telemetry. Bird Conserv Int 22:106–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins AR, Stephenson A (1997) Siberian peregrines in Southern Africa. Africa Birds Birding 2(4):62–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson JA, Ambers AD, Burnham KK (2012) Genetics of plum- age color in the Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus): analysis of the melanocortin-1 receptor gene. J Hered 103:315–321

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karyakin IV, Nikolenko EG, Shnayder EP, Prommer M (2018) Results of the GPS/GSM-tracking of juvenile Saker falcons in the Altai-Sayan region, Russia. Rap Cons 37:166–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Kassara C, Fric J, Gschweng M, Sfenthourakis S (2012) Complementing the puzzle of Eleonora’s falcon (Falco eleonorae) migration: new evidence from an eastern colony in the Aegean Sea. J Orn 153:839–848

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kassara C, Gangoso L, Mellone U, Piasevoli G, Hadjikyriakou TG, Tsiopelas N et al (2017) Current and future suitability of wintering grounds for a long-distance migratory raptor. Sci Rep 7:8798. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-08753-w

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kassara C, Bairaktaridou K, Kakalis E, Tsiopelas N, Giokas S, Barboutis C (2019) Activity patterns of Eleonora’s falcons during the pre-breeding period: the role of habitat composition. Avocetta 43:5–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Katzner TE, Bragin EA, Bragin AE, McGrady M, Miller TA, Bildstein KL (2016) Unusual clockwise loop migration lengthens travel distances and increases potential risks for a central Asian, long-distance, trans- equatorial migrant, the Red-footed falcon. Bird Study 63:406–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kjellén N (1992) Differential timing of autumn migration between sex and age groups in raptors at Falsterbo, Sweden. Ornis Scand 23:420–434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kjellén N (1994) Differences in age and sex ratio among migrating and wintering raptors in southern Sweden. Auk 111(2):274–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kok OB, Kok AC, Van Ee CA (2000) Diet of the migrant Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni in their winter quarters in South Africa. Acta Ornithol 35:147–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokko H (1999) Competition for early arrival in migratory birds. J Anim Ecol 68:940–950

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kopij G (2007) Seasonal and annual dietary changes in lesser kestrels Falco naumanni wintering in Lesotho. Ostrich 78:615–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kopij G (2012) Changes in numbers of Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni and Amur Falcons F. amurensis at a winter roost in Lesotho. Bull ABC 19(2):160–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Korpimäki E, Norrdahl K (1991) Numerical and functional-responses of kestrels, short-eared owls, and long-eared owls to vole densities. Ecology 72:814–826

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lihu X, Jianjian L, Chunfu T, Wenshan H (2007) Foraging area and hunting technique selection of common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in winter: the role of perch sites. Acta Ecol Sinica 27:2160–2166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limiñana R, Romero M, Mellone U, Urios V (2012a) Map** the migratory routes and wintering areas of Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni: new insights from satellite telemetry. Ibis 154:389–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2011.01210.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limiñana R, Mellone U, López-López P, Urios V (2012b) Migración e invernada del Halcón de Eleonora (Falco eleonorae Gené, 1839; falconidae). ¿Qué hemos aprendido con el seguimiento por satélite? Cuadernos de Biodiversidad 39:1–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limiñana R, Romero M, Mellone U, Urios V (2013) Is there a different response to winds during migration between soaring and flap** raptors? An example with the Montagu’s harrier and the lesser kestrel. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 67:823–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-013-1506-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-López P, Limiñana R, Mellone U, Urios V (2010) From the Mediterranean Sea to Madagascar: are there ecological barriers for the long-distance migrant Eleonora’s falcon? Landsc Ecol 25:803–813. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-010-9460-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg P (1988) The evolution of partial migration in birds. Trends Ecol Evol 3:172–175

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer J, Kratzer D (2009) Influx of Red-footed falcon Falco vespertinus into Baden-Württemberg in spring 2008. Ornithol Jh Bad-Württ 25:129–134

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrady MJ, Young GS, Seegar WS (2006) Migration of a Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus over water in the vicinity of a hurricane. Ring Migr 23:80–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre CL, Douglas DC, Adams LG (2009) Movements of juvenile Gyrfalcons from western and interior Alaska following departure from their natal areas. J Raptor Res 43:99–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mead CJ (1973) Movements of British raptors. Bird Study 20:259–286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mearns R (1982) Winter occupation of breeding territories and winter diet of peregrines in South Scotland. Ornis Scand 13(1):79–83. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3675978

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mearns R, Newton I (1984) Turnover and dispersal in a peregrine Falco peregrinus population. Ibis 126:347–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellone U, López-López P, Limiñana R, Urios V (2011) Weather conditions promote route flexibility during open ocean crossing in a long-distance migratory raptor. Int J Biometeorol 55:463–468

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mellone U, López-López P, Limiñana R, Urios V (2012) Wintering habitats of Eleonora's falcons Falco eleonorae in Madagascar. Bird Study 59(1):29–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063657.2011.632401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellone U, López-López P, Limiñana R, Urios V (2013a) Summer pre-breeding movements of Eleonora ́s falcon Falco eleonorae revealed by satellite telemetry: implications for conservation. Bird Conserv Int 23:487–494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellone U, López-López P, Limiñana R, Piasevoli G, Urios V (2013b) The trans-equatorial loop migration system of Eleonora’s falcon: differences in migration patterns between age classes, regions and seasons. J Avian Biol 44:417–426

    Google Scholar 

  • Merlin C, Liedvogel M (2019) The genetics and epigenetics of animal migration and orientation: birds, butterflies and beyond. J Exp Biol 222:jeb191890. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.191890

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyburg B-U, Howey PW, Meyburg C, Fiuczynski KD (2011) Two complete migration cycles of an adult Hobby tracked by satellite. Brit Birds 104:2–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer SK, Spaar R, Bruderer B (2000) To cross the sea or to follow the coast? Flight directions and behaviour of migrating raptors approaching the Mediterranean Sea in autumn. Behaviour 137:379–399

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer SK, Spaar R, Bruderer B (2003) Sea crossing behaviour of falcons and harriers at the southern Mediterranean coast of Spain. Avian Sci 3:153–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Mihoub JB, Gimenez O, Pilard P, Sarrazin F (2010) Challenging conservation of migratory species: Sahelian rainfalls drive first year survival of the vulnerable Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. Biol Conserv 143:839–847

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minias P, Kaczmarek K, Piasecka A, Kuncewicz M (2009) Large roost of Lesser Kestrels in southeastern Albania. J Raptor Res 43:166–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison JL, Wood PB (2009) Broadening our approaches to studying dispersal in raptors. J Raptor Res 43(2):81–89. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-08-33.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Negro JJ, de la Riva M, Bustamante J (1991) Patterns of winter distribution and abundance of lesser kestrels (Falco naumanni) in Spain. J Raptor Res 25(2):30–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Negro JJ, Hiraldo F, Donázar JA (1997) Causes of natal dispersal in the lesser kestrel: inbreeding avoidance or resource competition? J Anim Ecol 66:640–648

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nemček V (2013) Abundance of raptors and habitat preferences of the common buzzard Buteo buteo and the common kestrel Falco tinnunculus during the non-breeding season in an agricultural landscape (western Slovakia). Slovak Rap J 7:37–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nemček V, Chavko J, Deutschova L (2014) Movement of satellite-tracked juvenile saker falcons (Falco cherrug) in SW Slovakia. Slovak Raptor J 8(2):97–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nemček V, Uhrin M, Chavko J, Deutschova L, Maderič B, Noga M (2016) Habitat structure of temporary settlement areas of young Saker falcon Falco cherrug females during movements in Europe. Acta Ornithol 51:93–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newton I (1980) The role of food in limiting bird numbers. Ardea 68:11–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Newton I (1995) Relationship between breeding and wintering ranges in Palaearctic-African migrants. Ibis 137:241–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newton I (2004) Population limitation in migrants. Ibis 146:197–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newton I, Dale LC (1997) Effects of seasonal migration on the latitudinal distribution of west Palaearctic bird species. J Biogeogr 24(6):781–789

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nightingale B, Allsopp K (1994) Invasion of red-footed falcons in spring 1992. Brit Birds 87:223–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson C, Klaassen RHG, Alerstam T (2013) Differences in speed and duration of bird migration between spring and autumn. Am Nat 181:837–845. https://doi.org/10.1086/670335

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nordström G (1963) Ergebnisse der Vogelberingung in Finland in den Jahren 1913-1962. Orn Fenn 40:81–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Olea PP (2001) Postfledging dispersal in the endangered Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. Bird Study 48:110–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olea PP, Vera R, de Frutos A, Robles H (2004) Premigratory communal roosts of the Lesser Kestrel in the boreal summer. J Raptor Res 38:278–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollé A, Estrada-Devesa V, Gil-Velasco M (2016) Northern Peregrines Falco peregrinus peregrinus and Falco peregrinus calidus: two poorly-known taxa in Catalonia. Bull CAC 1(2016):11–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortego J, Calabuig G, Cordero PJ, Aparicio JM (2007a) Genetic characterization of avian malaria (protozoa) in the endangered lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni. Parasitol Res 101:1153–1156

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ortego J, Cordero PJ, Aparicio JM, Calabuig G (2007b) No relationship between individual genetic diversity and prevalence of avian malaria in a migratory kestrel. Mol Ecol 16:4858–4866. 294X.2007.03554.x. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ortego J, Calabuig G, Aparicio JM, Cordero PJ (2008) Genetic consequences of natal dispersal in the colonial lesser kestrel. Mol Ecol 17:2051–2059

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ouweneel GL (1995) Voorkomen en terreinkeus van Slechtvalken Falco peregrinus in het Noordelijke Deltagebied. Het Vogeljaar 43(5):193–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Paganini ST, Stafford A, Hirschheydt J, Kéry M (2018) A large aggregation of 50 Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) during migration in the Western Gulf of Mexico. J Raptor Res 52(4):500–502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palatitz P, Fehérvári P, Solt S, Horváth E (2015) Breeding population trends and pre-migration roost site survey of the Red-footed falcon in Hungary. Ornis Hung 23(1):77–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pepler D, Martin R, Fouché F, van Hensbergen B (1994) Radionuclide analysis of Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni and the origin of populations overwintering in southern Africa. Ostrich 65:122–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pietersen DW, Symes CT (2010) Assessing the diet of Amur falcon Falco amurensis and Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni using stomach content analysis. Ostrich 81(1):39–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Platt JB (1976) Gyrfalcon nest site selection and winter activity in the Western Canadian Arctic. Can Field-Nat 90:338–345

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter RG, Beaman MAS (1985) A resume of raptor migration in Europe and the Middle East. ICBP Tech Publ 5:237–242

    Google Scholar 

  • Prokop JW, Schmidt C, Gasper D, Duff RJ, Milsted A et al (2014) Discovery of the elusive leptin in birds: identification of several ‘missing links’ in the evolution of leptin and its receptor. PLoS One 9(3):e92751. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092751

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Prommer M, Bagyura J, Chavko J, Uhrin M (2012) Migratory movements of Central and Eastern European saker falcons (Falco cherrug) from juvenile dispersal to adulthood. Aquila 119:111–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasa OAE (1987) Patterns of intra-African small raptor spring migrations in the Tam Desert, Kenya. Afr J Ecol 25:165–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rebecca GW, Cosneite BL, Hardey JJC, Payne AG (1992) Status, distribution and breeding biology of the Merlin in north-east Scotland, 1980-1989. Scott Birds 16:165–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Restani M, Mattox WG (2000) Natal dispersal of peregrine falcons in Greenland. Auk 117(2):500–505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riegert J, Fuchs R (2011) Fidelity to roost sites and diet composition of wintering male urban common kestrels Falco tinnunculus. Acta Ornithol 46(2):183–189. https://doi.org/10.3161/000164511X625955

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riols R, Leroy T, Verne H (2008) Passage exceptionnel de Faucons kobez (Falco vespertinus) en Auvergne au printemps 2008. Le Grand-Duc 73:25–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Ristow D (2010) Up-date on breeding status and review on Eleonora’s falcon Falco eleonorae when away from the breeding sites. Il-Merill 32:1–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Ristow D, Wink M (1995) Distribution of non-breeding Eleonora’s falcon Falco eleonorae. Il Merrill 28:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Ristow D, Wink C, Wink M (1979) Site tenacity and pair bond of the Eleonora’s falcon. Il-Merill 20:16–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodríguez A, Negro JJ, Bustamante J, Fox JW, Afanasyev V (2009) Geolocators map the wintering grounds of threatened Lesser Kestrels in Africa. Diversity Distrib 15:1010–1016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodríguez A, Alcaide M, Negro JJ, Pilard P (2011) Using major histocompatibility complex markers to assign the geographic origin of migratory birds: examples from the threatened Lesser Kestrel. Anim Conserv 14:306–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodríguez B, Bécares J, Lorenzo JA, Rodríguez A (2018) Inter-island movements of two Barbary falcon (Falco peregrinus pelegrinoides) juveniles in the Canary Islands. J Raptor Res 52(4):503–510

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarà M, Campobello D, Zanca L, Massa B (2014) Food for flight: pre-migratory dynamics of the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. Bird Study 61(1):29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063657.2013.867476

  • Sarà M, Bondì S, Guzzo E, Amato M, Antioco N, Leonardi G et al (2019a) First evidence by satellite telemetry of Lanner falcon’s Falco biarmicus feldeggii natal dispersal outside Sicily, and a review of existing data. Avocetta 43:75–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarà M, Bondì S, Bermejo A, Bourgeois M, Bouzin M, Bustamante J et al (2019b) Broad-front migration leads to strong migratory connectivity in the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni). J Biogeogr 46(12):2663–2677

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schifferli A (1965) Vom Zugverhalten der in der Schweiz brütenden Turmfalken, Falco tinnunculus, nach den Ringfunden. Ornithol Beob 62(1):1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Schjølberg K (2006) Prey-exchange and hunting techniques of Sooty falcons Falco concolor in Muscat, Oman. Sandgrouse 28(2):168–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Serrano D, Tella JL (2003) Dispersal within a spatially structured populations of lesser kestrels: the role of spatial isolation and conspecific attraction. J Anim Ecol 72:400–410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano D, Tella JL (2012) Lifetime fitness correlates of natal dispersal in a colonial bird. J Anim Ecol 81:97–107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano D, Tella JL, Forero MG, Donázar JA (2001) Factors affecting breeding dispersal in the facultatively colonial lesser kestrel: individual experience vs. conspecific cues. J Anim Ecol 70:568–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano D, Tella JL, Donázar JA, Pomarol M (2003) Social and individual features affecting natal dispersal in the colonial lesser kestrel. Ecology 84:3044–3054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano D, Oro D, Ursúa E, Tella JL (2005) Colony size selection determines adult survival and dispersal preferences: allee effects in a colonial bird. Am Nat 166(2):22–31. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/431255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano D, Carrete M, Tella JL (2008) Describing dispersal under habitat constraints: a randomization approach in lesser kestrels. Basic Appl Ecol 9:771–778

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma A, Singh D, Malik S, Gupta NJ, Rani S, Kumar V (2018) Difference in control between spring and autumn migration in birds: insight from seasonal changes in hypothalamic gene expression in captive buntings. Proc R Soc B 285:20181531. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.1531

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegfried WR, Skead DM (1971) Status of the lesser kestrels in South Africa. Ostrich 42(1):1–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Śliwa P, Mokwa K, Rejt Ł (2009) Migrations and wintering of the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in Poland. The Ring 31(2):59–69. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10050-008-0053-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snow DW (1968) Movements and mortality of British Kestrels Falco tinnunculus. Bird Study 15(2):65–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063656809476184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sokolov V, Lecomte N, Sokolov A, Rahman L, Dixon A (2014) Site fidelity and home range variation during the breeding season of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Yamal, Russia. Polar Biol 37:1621–1631

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sokolov V, Sokolov A, Dixon A (2018) Migratory movements of Peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus, breeding on the Yamal Peninsula, Russia. Ornis Hung 26(2):222–231. https://doi.org/10.1515/orhu-2018-0030

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steenhof K, Fuller MR, Kochert MN, Bates KK (2005) Long-range movements and breeding dispersal of Prairie falcons from Southwest Idaho. Condor 107(3):481–496. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096535

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stinson CH, Crawford DL, Lauthner J (1981) Sex differences in winter habitat of American kestrels in Georgia. J Field Orn 52(1):29–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4512609

    Google Scholar 

  • Strandberg R, Klaasen RHG, Hake M, Olofsson P, Alerstam T (2009a) Converging migration routes of Eurasian hobbies Falco subbuteo crossing the African equatorial rain forest. Proc R Soc B 276:727–733. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1202

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strandberg R, Klaasen RHG, Hake M, Olofsson P, Alerstam T (2009b) Daily travel schedules of adult Eurasian hobbies Falco subbuteo - variability in flight hours and migration speed along the route. Ardea 97(3):287–295. https://doi.org/10.5253/078.097.0304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strenna L, Boileau N (2012) Composition et fidélité des couples chez le Faucon crécerelle Falco tinnunculus: une étude de cas en Bourgogne. Nos Oiseaux 59:67–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Strucker R, Luitwieler M (2015) Late summer concentration of Hobbies Falco subbuteo on Goeree. De Takkeling 23:154–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunyer C, Viñuela J (1990) Migración e invernada del esmerejón en España. Ardeola 37(2):279–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Swatschek I, Ristow D, Scharlau W, Wink C, Wink M (1993) Population genetics and paternity analysis of Eleonora's falcon (Falco eleonorae). J Ornithol 134:137–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tella JL, Forero MG (2000) Farmland habitat selection of wintering lesser kestrels in a Spanish pseudosteppe: implications for conservation strategies. Biodivers Conserv 9:433–441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terraube J, Vasko V, Korpimäki E (2015) Mechanisms and reproductive consequences of breeding dispersal in a specialist predator under temporally varying food conditions. Oikos 124:762–771

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Therrien J-F, Lecomte N, Zgirski T, Jaffré M, Beardsell A, Goodrich LJ et al (2017) Long-term phenological shifts in migration and breeding-area residency in eastern North American raptors. Auk 134:871–881. https://doi.org/10.1642/AUK-17-5.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiollay JM (1977) L’importance des hivernants paléarctiques dans le peuplement de rapaces d’Afrique tropicale. Nos Oiseaux 34:59–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiollay JM (1978) Population structure and seasonal fluctuations of the Falconiformes in Uganda National Parks. East Afr Wildl J 16:145–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiollay JM (2006) The decline of raptors in West Africa: long-term assessment and the role of protected areas. Ibis 148:240–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson AL (1958) The migrations of British falcons (Falconidae) as shown by ringing results. Brit Birds 51:179–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorup K, Fuller M, Alerstam T, Hake M, Kjellén N, Strandberg R (2006) Do migratory flight paths of raptors follow constant geographical or geomagnetic courses? Anim Behav 72:875–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.01.028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tordoff HB, Redig PT (1999) Close inbreeding in Peregrine falcons in midwestern United States. J Raptor Res 33:326–328

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasko V, Laaksonen T, Valkama J, Korpimäki E (2011) Breeding dispersal of Eurasian kestrels Falco tinnunculus under temporally fluctuating food abundance. J Avian Biol 42:552–563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-048X.2011.05351.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Village A (1990) The kestrel. Poyser, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Vroege J (2013) European raptors observed in The Gambia, Senegal and southern Mauritania in February-March 2005. De Takkeling 21(1):83–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallin K, Wallin M, Strandvik P (1985) Leap-frog migration in the Swedish Kestrel Falco tinnunculus population. In: Eriksson MOG (ed) Proceedings of the fifth Nordic ornithological congress. Onsala, Sweden, pp 213–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallin K, Wallin M, Levin M, Järdås T, Strandvik P (1987) Leap-frog migration in the Swedish Kestrel Falco tinnunculus population. Acta Reg Soc Sci Litt Gothoburgensis, Zool 14:213–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward FP, Laybourne RC (1985) A difference in prey selection by adult and immature Peregrine falcons during autumn migration. ICBP Tech Publ 5:303–309

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward D, Pepler D, Botha R (2008) The influence of sample size on the determination of population trends in the vulnerable Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni overwintering in South Africa. Ostrich 79:199–204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warkentin IG, James PC (1990) Winter roost-site selection by urban merlins (Falco columbarius). J Raptor Res 24(1–2):5–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Warkentin IG, Oliphant LW (1990) Habitat use and foraging behaviour of urban merlins (Falco columbarius) in winter. J Zool Lond 221:539–563

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warkentin IG, West NH (1990) Ecological energetics of wintering merlins Falco columbarius. Physiol Zool 63(2):308–333. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30158499

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warkentin IG, James PC, Oliphant LW (1990) Body morphometrics, age structure, and partial migration or urban merlins. Auk 107:25–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Warkentin IG, Lieske DJ, Espie RHM, James PC (2013) Close inbreeding and dispersal in merlins: further examination. J Raptor Res 47(1):69–74. http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3356/JRR-12-00005.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiklund CG (1996) Determinants of dispersal in breeding merlins (Falco columbarius). Ecology 77(6):1920–1927. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265794

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wink M, Ristow D (2000) Biology and molecular genetics of Eleonora’s falcon Falco eleonorae, a colonial raptor of Mediterranean islands. In: Chancellor RD, Meyburg B-U (eds) Raptor at risk. WWGBP and Hancock House, Berlin, pp 653–668

    Google Scholar 

  • Wink M, Sauer-Gürth H, Pepler D (2004) Phylogeographic relationships of the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni in breeding and wintering quarters, inferred from nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. In: Chancellor RD, Meyburg B-U (eds) Raptors worldwide. WWGBP and MME, Berlin, pp 505–510

    Google Scholar 

  • Worcester R, Ydenberg R (2008) Cross-continental pattern in the timing of southward Peregrine falcon migration in North America. J Raptor Res 42:13–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright PM (2003) Recruitment, site fidelity and dispersal of merlins Falco columbarius from the southeast Yorkshire Dales, England. Ring Migr 21(4):227–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/03078698.2003.9674298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • **rouchakis SM, Alivizatos H, Georgopoulou E, Dimalexis A, Latsoudis P et al (2019) The diet of the Eleonora’s falcon (Falco eleonorae) in the Aegean archipelago (Greece). J Nat Hist 53:1767–1785. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2019.1668978

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zefania S (2001) Observation of sooty and Eleonora's falcons in Madagascar. In: Wings over Africa, Proceeding of the International Seminar on Bird Migration: Research, Conservation, Education and Flight Safety. pp 151–159

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Hierofalcon Research Group, Catania, Italy

    Giovanni Leonardi

Authors
  1. Giovanni Leonardi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Leonardi, G. (2020). Dispersal Patterns. In: Behavioural Ecology of Western Palearctic Falcons. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60541-4_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation