Abstract
To this point, we have examined issues surrounding the models of communication inscribed within images as well as the conflicts in terms of presence these images may exhibit.
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Notes
- 1.
In art history, one may think for example of Louis Marin’s (1993) opposition between transparency and opacity which concerns the distinction between representation and presentation of the representation, and which would pertain to a reflective functioning of the image. One could also think of the writings by Hubert Damisch (1972) on the work of art as a theoretical object.
- 2.
It is important to recall that philosopher Michel Serres already excluded any kind of hierarchy from the relation between one language and another and proposed the notion of generalized translation in his books Hermès I. La communication (1969), Hermès II. L’interférence (1972), and Hermès III. La traduction (1974). For a discussion regarding the paradigm of translation vis-à-vis metalanguage, see Bouquiaux, Dubuisson, Leclercq (2014).
- 3.
- 4.
On the matter of the exclusive use of speaking and verbal language in legal parlance, which, unfortunately, does not take other media such as photography into account, see Coccia (2015) who proposes to go beyond identifying the legal system with instruments belonging to the verbal medium: “To speak of specifically iconic normativity does not mean to understand and analyze the aesthetic dimension of the law, but to make of images the expression of a normativity exclusively expressible in a form which is by no means an aesthetic or visual translation of a law existing elsewhere” (p. 66, our translation).
- 5.
Concerning the differences between the semiology of Barthes and the semiotics of Greimas on the matter of images, see Dondero (2017b). On the evolution of the notions of studium and punctum between Barthes’ Camera Lucida and Claude Zilberberg’s tensive semiotics, see Colas-Blaise and Dondero (2017).
- 6.
- 7.
See in this respect our proposition in Dondero (2009a).
- 8.
A third question would complete the second: Can metalinguistic discourse production specifically pertaining to images be accomplished by means of another language, for instance an audiovisual, gestural, musical, or verbal language? If such were the case, it would no longer be a matter of translating between two visual utterances belonging to a same medium but rather of an intermediatic reflection in which two technical and/or technological specificities would be made to mutually translate one another, putting the specificities of each language into comparison, without any hierarchy being relevant. See in this respect the distinction formulated by Klinkenberg (2000) between homosemiotic metasemiotics and heterosemiotic metasemiotics.
- 9.
Notre-Dame, 1914, oil on canvas, 147 × 98 cm, Kunstmuseum Solothurn, Solothurn (Switzerland), View of Notre-Dame, 1914, oil on canvas, 147.3 × 94.3 cm, The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
- 10.
- 11.
- 12.
All of these devices would, according to Stoichita, have the capacity to found a reflection on pictorial language. In our view, they also function as enunciative devices which govern the pronominal relations with the observer. For instance, mirrors, if shown facing the observer as occurs in Las Meninas by Velázquez, will interrogate the observer regarding his or her role as producer of the image. Thus, the enunciative and metalinguistic instances converge, because these metalinguistic devices question the acts of viewing and of producing the image, these being the two fundamental enunciative operations. One could nevertheless continue to distinguish the uttered enunciation from metalanguage, since it concerns the simulacrum of the communication situation in the image and the role played in it by each actant, whereas the meta- level concerns the reflectivity of painting upon itself as a medium.
- 13.
This painting was created circa 1666 (between 1665 and 1670) and is exhibited at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna (oil on canvas, 120 × 100 cm).
- 14.
This painting was created in 1656 and is exhibited in the Prado Museum in Madrid.
- 15.
Concerning the various interpretations of Las Meninas and of the characters represented in the mirror in the back, see Nova (1997).
- 16.
For an intriguing analysis of portraits of actors, see Lenain (2015).
- 17.
- 18.
In this chapter, we return to many of the reflections formulated in an article published in Nouvelle Revue d’Esthétique (Dondero 2016a)
- 19.
Stoichita (2015).
- 20.
Stoichita (1995).
- 21.
One of the examples given by Stoichita is the painting by David Teniers the Younger, The Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Painting Gallery in Brussels, Vienna, circa 1650.
- 22.
One of the examples given by Stoichita is the painting by Alonso Cano, The Vision of St Bernard, Madrid, 1650.
- 23.
One of the examples given by Stoichita is the painting by Juan Sánchez Cotán, Quince, Cabbage, Melon and Cucumber, San Diego, 1602.
- 24.
One of the examples given by Stoichita is the painting by Simon Luttichuys, Vanitas still life with skull, books, prints and paintings by Rembrandt and Jan Lievens, with a reflection of the painter at work, 1635–1640.
- 25.
One of the examples given by Stoichita is the painting by Nicolaes Maes, Eavesdropper with a Scolding Woman, London, 1655.
- 26.
Concerning autographic and allographic symbolic systems, see Goodman (1968).
- 27.
For a more profound reflection on this matter in relation to Bruno Latour’s theory regarding scientific reference as exposed in several of his books, among which Latour (2001), please refer to Dondero (2010b). These works address the constraints (of a mathematical or technological nature) which link each image (or more specifically, each step of what we call the “chain of mediators”) to the images preceding and following it, while constituting, at the end of the trajectory, a relation totalizing the object of scientific research—thereby making it intelligible.
- 28.
The allography characterizing notational semiotic systems such as music derives from the existence of a score using a distinct class of fixed-value signs and by the multiple (more or less accurate) executions of such score. It distinguishes itself from the autography of systems which value the unicity of the image’s substrate and its syntactic and semantic density.
- 29.
Latour (1999) in this respect talks about the “chains of reference” which, in order to be considered robust, must be reversible, that is, “The succession of stages must be traceable, allowing for travel in both directions” (p. 69).
- 30.
Haddad et al., Immunity 24, pp. 217–230, February 2006.
- 31.
The point of the research can be summarized very succinctly: All of the cells in the immune system develop in the bone marrow except for the T lymphocytes, which develop in the thymus. The thymus is colonized by cells produced in the bone marrow transported through the blood: It is a matter of understanding which are the cells that will enter the thymus. Are they undifferentiated stem cells which reach the thymus by means of a random trajectory, or are the cells colonizing the thymus predetermined to do so? We know that cellular differentiation already begins at the bone marrow stage, but how to identify cells which may be preprogrammed, that is, which are selectively dedicated to the colonization of the thymic organ?
A research stay was carried out on this topic at the University Institute of Hematology (IUH), Paris 7, in 2014 under the supervision of Bruno Canque. I would like to thank Bruno Canque and Kutaiba Alhaj Hussen for their generous explanations and exchanges.
- 32.
For a semiotic theory of the manipulation of scientific objects, see the works of biologist and semiotician Françoise Bastide, and namely the collection of her articles translated into Italian (Bastide 2001).
- 33.
See in this respect Dondero (2016b).
- 34.
For a comparison between diagrammatical functioning in the artistic field and in mathematics, see Dondero (2012c).
- 35.
As stated by Bordron (2016), there is an economy behind each semiotic expression; in other words, the form of any expression is only intelligible against the background of an economy. In his view, “economy” firstly designates the ordering which founds the possibilities as regards the images’ values and their eventual circulation.
- 36.
- 37.
“Cultural analytics” is a methodology for the exploration and analysis of large corpora of images and of various media inspired by visual analytics and by visual data analysis.
- 38.
Several researchers have addressed the matter of digital representation as the locus of commensurability between various cultural objects. See for example the article by Lassègue (2013) in which he asserts that: “Digitization consists, as its name indicates, in encoding into digital form […]. With respect to the physical flow of phenomena, it is a matter of conducting a sampling of measurements which “break down” the object according to a pre-established fixed scale of measurement: For example, an image will be sampled according to a specified length while a sound will be sampled according to a given frequency. In both cases, the digital encoding obtained will have the particularity of making completely homogeneous the phenomena which, through perception or interpretation, manifest themselves as being highly different: Nothing distinguishes a series of numbers encoding a length from another sequence of numbers encoding the manner in which to disambiguate two linguistic categories. But from this homogeneity, it follows that any phenomenal order seems a priori able to receive a digital encoding and, from this, discrete representation. […] [A]ny phenomenon, be it natural or linguistically instituted, may be transposed onto the one-dimensional plane of digital coding which is the writing of numbers. Arithmetic is therefore at the core of digitization” (p. 85–86, our translation and emphasis).
- 39.
Manovich conceives of databases as the symbolic form of contemporary culture, similarly to the role played by perspective in the modern age since the Renaissance (Panofsky). Databases, in his view, would distinguish themselves from the symbolic form of narration which characterized modernity (of the 19th and twentieth centuries). Manovich asserts that databases and narrativity do not have the same status in digital culture: “In new media, the database supports a range of cultural forms which range from direct translation (i.e., a database stays a database) to a form whose logic is the opposite of the logic of the material form itself—a narrative. More precisely, a database can support narrative, but there is nothing in the logic of the medium itself which would foster its generation” (Manovich 2001, p. 201).
- 40.
Concerning this characteristic of separation between layers in the context of image classification by means of tags, see the invaluable article by Boullier and Crépel (2013).
- 41.
Groupe μ (1992).
- 42.
- 43.
Concerning the emergence of forms as serving to extend mathematical and artistic knowledge, see Chauviré (2008).
- 44.
For a comparison between metavisual theory in semiotics and the use of metavisual devices in Manovich’s research, see Dondero (2019).
- 45.
Concerning the relations between the works of Warburg and those of Manovich, see Hristova (2016). For a computational analysis reviewing Warburg’s panels and, more specifically, the gestures characterizing the pathos formula, see Impett and Moretti (2017). Thanks to Virginia Kuhn for bringing this work to my attention.
- 46.
On this matter, see Nixon and Aguado (2012).
- 47.
Indexing images solely by means of lexicalizations and standard metadata is inadequate for the study of images in their own language, which is constituted of plastic contrasts (chromatism, topology, formal composition) and of mereological relations of composition. Such opposition between standard metadata and visual descriptors, transposed to the history of semiology and semiotics, would be equivalent to the opposition between the 1960 s’ Barthesian approach to the image (based on lexicalization) and the 1980 s’ approach of Greimas and Floch (based on differential and semi-symbolic relations). In this respect, see Colas-Blaise and Dondero (2017) and Dondero (2017b).
- 48.
See Dondero (2017a).
- 49.
It must be kept in mind that, in the diagram of images, the classification parameters pertain to the plastic dimension, and the results of these classifications are visualizations.
- 50.
See in this respect the critique by Basso Fossali (2018–2019).
- 51.
On the work by Manovich and the notion of diagram, see Dondero (2017c).
- 52.
See for instance the visualizations of the works by Rothko and by Mondrian here: http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2011/06/mondrian-vs-rothko-footprints-and.html.
- 53.
See Hristova (2016) regarding the possibility of testing by computational means the choice of similarities operated by Warburg in his panels.
- 54.
For a more complex and balanced overview on digital tools and art history, see Drucker (2013).
- 55.
Regarding Warburg and the notion of interval, see Agamben (1999).
- 56.
Comparatively to Focillon, Warburg has a more marked interest for the semantic transformation of recurring ancient forms. On the depolarization and repolarization of dynamograms, see Hagelstein (2009).
- 57.
The conception of form in Deleuze (2003) is very close to the fundamental idea of the tensive model by Zilberberg in French semiotics: The oppositions are always gradual, and in order to measure and study the entire spectrum of a category, we need two concepts: intensity (qualitative characteristics of discourse) and extension (quantitative characteristics of discourse).
- 58.
All things considered, this procedure has the same shortcoming as Roland Barthes’ semiology which used the segmentations provided by verbal language to read images—and which has been usefully criticized by Greimasian semiotics. Regarding the critical view upon the categories of art history, see Drucker et al. (2015).
- 59.
It must also be said, as noted in Benoit Seguin’s thesis (2018), that clustering and searching through reproductions of artworks independently of their medium effectively solves a difficult problem of cross-domain image searches. The best solution would be to be able to perform a search in two different ways: the one including the relevance of the medium, the other supporting a cross-domain query.
- 60.
Regarding the interferences between the various arts which result in crossings and transfers of techniques and materials (consider the relations between oil painting and watercolor in the English school, or the relation between etching and painting in the work of Rembrandt), see Focillon (1992, p. 108). These crossings result in the novel application of certain techniques to materials to which they were not usually applied, for example with etching by painters, water painting, pictorial elements in architecture, etc.
- 61.
Masson and Olesen (2021): “In the SEMIA project, for instance, we not only made prior determinations as to which sensory aspects of the images to focus on; we also had to decide between different approaches to feature extraction. As previously mentioned, the use of a neural net was one of them—but as it turned out, this method was primarily successful in making matches in terms of shape. For such image characteristics as colour, texture and movement, we had to use task-specific algorithms, which turned out to perform better in those cases”.
- 62.
The way of representing the differentiation and succession between images that resemble one another proposed by Kuhn et al. (2012) in their work on video corpora served as inspiration here.
- 63.
On the relationship between Thom’s work and diagrammatical forces in Deleuze’s Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation, see Aa.Vv. (2013).
- 64.
TN: As noted by Wolfgang Wildgen, “The term in French ‘prégnance’ (or even less evident in English’pregnancy’) should be understood as a lean-translation with the lexical content of German ‘Prägnanz’” (Wildgen 2010, p. 82).
- 65.
See in this respect Mitchell (1994, 2005, 2014). The difference between “image” and “picture” lies in the fact that a picture is an image that has been stabilized onto a mediatic substrate. For Mitchell, the medium is conceived of as the set of material practices which associate an image with an object to make it into a picture.
- 66.
We return here to a concept of Nelson Goodman extensively addressed in other works (Basso Fossali and Dondero 2011; Dondero and Fontanille 2014) and which refers to the allography of notational semiotic systems such as music—which possesses a score and a class of distinct, fixed-value signs—and which however distinguishes itself from autographic systems which value the unicity of the image’s substrate and of its syntactic density. The error of semiotics would have been to treat dense images such as paintings as allographic semiotic systems.
- 67.
This lack of attention paid to the substance of expression becomes all the more understandable when considering that literature, which was the first field of study privileged by semiotics, had never been studied from the point of view of writing, or as an act of recording markings.
- 68.
Regarding semi-symbolism, beyond the aforecited work by Floch (1985), see Floch (1986) and (2005). For an excellent critique of semi-symbolism, see Basso Fossali (2018-2019): “Semi-symbolic coding sterilizes the gaps by reducing them to crystallized oppositive homologations. […] To the contrary, the stakes pertaining to an image having several layers of meaning resides in the internal treatment of a heterogeneity in which the relations begin as events of meaning and not by the recognition of homologies between strata of a same system of semiotic organization” (our translation).
- 69.
Since the article by Jacques Fontanille “Décoratif, iconicité et écriture. Geste, rythme et figurativité : à propos de la poterie berbère” (1998)—which raises the issue of the relation between plastico-figurative markings and the markings of writing—we have called the material which makes this act of inscription possible the “application” (Basso Fossali and Dondero 2011).
- 70.
See Dondero (2009a).
- 71.
Concerning the relation between matter and the action of the body, and notably of the hand, in the field of artistic creation from a philosophical point of view, see Parret (2018).
- 72.
Concerning substrates and grounds, see Le Guern (2009).
- 73.
We are situated within the theory of Jacques Fontanille formulated in Soma et séma (2004) in which the division between expression and content and the relation between form and substance depend upon the enunciative instance. This means that what is form from one standpoint can become substance from another. In other words, substance is that which is organized, form is that which organizes. But a form may be in turn organized by another form and thereby become substance from the standpoint of this new form.
- 74.
A lengthy critique of this transversal view of forms has already been provided in Basso Fossali and Dondero (2011).
- 75.
- 76.
See Basso Fossali and Dondero (2011).
- 77.
On the relation between writing interfaces and substrates, see Zinna (2015).
- 78.
Some works in information and communication sciences and namely Bonaccorsi (2013) appear to raise the same questions: On the one hand, the image would produce meaning and would function in an autonomous and internal manner; on the other hand, the mediatic regimes of the image’s production and circulation would determine its status and value. What happens for instance when an image, following a transfer from one substrate to another or a change in medium, undergoes a change in meaning?
- 79.
The substrate receiving the inscriptions can only be configured by means of a certain number of operations applied to the material object, operations which form part of a praxis (gesturality, technique, etc.) of which the greater or lesser sophistication is proportional to the gap which separates the material object from the inscription and from the relevant properties of the formal substrate.
- 80.
For a semiotic approach to the modes of existence, see Fontanille (1998) and in particular the chapter “Énonciation.”
- 81.
On the relation between substance and digital practices in audiovisual domain, see D’Armenio (2017).
- 82.
On levels of analysis regarding to pixel and its texture, see Leone (2018).
- 83.
For an interesting discussion on the relation between substance and semiotic function in philosophy of mathematics, see Sarti et al. (2019).
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Dondero, M.G. (2020). The Metavisual. In: The Language of Images. Lecture Notes in Morphogenesis. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52620-7_4
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