Abstract
In this chapter, the science, technology and applications of functional hydrogels are considered. A brief discussion on fundamental network properties, such as fractal dimensions, network relaxation and stiffness, are given. A large number of synthesis approaches for the manufacture of functional hydrogels are discussed here. The key synthesis approaches which underpin a series of hydrogel variants and their applications are also discussed. An overview of the composition, structure, functionality, characterization and application of a range of functional hydrogels is offered in this chapter, as well as relevant rheological approaches in the synthesis and characterization of these materials are discussed here, paying particular attention to the gelation, sol-gel transitions and multiwave mechanical spectroscopy.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abadi, M., Serag, M. F., & Habuchi, S. (2018). Entangled polymer dynamics beyond reptation. Nature Communications, 9(1), 5098. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07546-7.
Abdulganiyu, U., Magami, S. M., & Aminu, M. (2017). Graft copolymerization and characterization of styrene with chitosan via radical polymerization. ChemSearch Journal, 8(1), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.4314/csj.v8i1.8.
Ahmed, E. M. (2015). Hydrogel: Preparation, characterization, and applications: A review. Journal of Advanced Research, 6(2), 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2013.07.006.
Ahn, S., Kasi, R. M., Kim, S.-C., Sharma, N., & Zhou, Y. (2008). Stimuli-responsive polymer gels. Soft Matter, 4(6), 1151–1157. https://doi.org/10.1039/B714376A.
Akhtar, M. F., Hanif, M., & Ranjha, N. M. (2016). Methods of synthesis of hydrogels … a review. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 24(5), 554–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2015.03.022.
Anseth, K. S., Bowman, C. N., & Brannon-Peppas, L. (1996). Mechanical properties of hydrogels and their experimental determination. Biomaterials, 17(17), 1647–1657. https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-9612(96)87644-7.
Bai, H., Li, C., Wang, X., & Shi, G. (2011a). On the gelation of graphene oxide. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 115(13), 5545–5551. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp1120299.
Bai, H., Sheng, K., Zhang, P., Li, C., & Shi, G. (2011b). Graphene oxide/conducting polymer composite hydrogels. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 21(46), 18653–18658. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1jm13918e.
Bonino, C. A., Samorezov, J. E., Jeon, O., Alsberg, E., & Khan, S. A. (2011). Real-time in siturheology of alginate hydrogel photocrosslinking. Soft Matter, 7(24), 11510–11517. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1sm06109g.
Borzacchiello, A., & Ambrosio, L. (2009). Structure-property relationships in hydrogels. In Hydrogels: Biological properties and applications (pp. 9–20). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-1104-5_2.
Brannon-Peppas, L., & Peppas, N. A. (1991). Equilibrium swelling behavior of pH-sensitive hydrogels. Chemical Engineering Science, 46(3), 715–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(91)80177-z.
Bryant, S. J., & Anseth, K. S. (2003). Controlling the spatial distribution of ECM components in degradable PEG hydrogels for tissue engineering cartilage. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 64A(1), 70–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.10319.
Chambon, F., Petrovic, Z. S., MacKnight, W. J., & Winter, H. H. (1986). Rheology of model polyurethanes at the gel point. Macromolecules, 19(8), 2146–2149. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00162a007.
Childs, A., Li, H., Lewittes, D. M., Dong, B., Liu, W., Shu, X., Sun, C., & Zhang, H. F. (2016). Fabricating customized hydrogel contact lens. Scientific Reports, 6, 34905. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep34905.
Chiou, B.-S., English, R. J., & Khan, S. A. (1996). Rheology and photo-cross-linking of thiol−ene polymers. Macromolecules, 29(16), 5368–5374. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma960383e.
Crook, V., & Ali, M. I. (2016). Fire resistant glazing unit. U.S. Patent Application No. 14/912,939. Available in: https://patents.google.com/patent/us20160200077a1/en
Dashtimoghadam, E., Mirzadeh, H., Taromi, F. A., & Nyström, B. (2014). Thermoresponsive biopolymer hydrogels with tunable gel characteristics. RSC Advances, 4(74), 39386–39393. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra05246c.
Dimesso, L. (2018). Pechini processes: An alternate approach of the sol-gel method, preparation, properties, and applications. In: Handbook of sol-gel science and technology (2nd ed.). Klein, L., Aparicio, M. & Jitianu, A. (Eds.). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32101-1_123.
Ding, L., Blackwell, R., Künzler, J. F., & Knox, W. H. (2006). Large refractive index change in silicone-based and non-silicone-based hydrogel polymers induced by femtosecond laser micro-machining. Optics Express, 14(24), 11901–11909. https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.14.011901.
Drury, J. L., Dennis, R. G., & Mooney, D. J. (2004). The tensile properties of alginate hydrogels. Biomaterials, 25(16), 3187–3199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.10.002.
Garza, E., Gomez, S., Chayet, A., & Dishler, J. (2013). One-year safety and efficacy results of a hydrogel inlay to improve near vision in patients with emmetropic presbyopia. Journal of Refractive Surgery, 29, 166–172. https://doi.org/10.3928/1081597x-20130129-01.
Geri, M., Keshavarz, B., Divoux, T., Clasen, C., Curtis, D. J., & McKinley, G. H. (2018). Time-resolved mechanical spectroscopy of soft materials via optimally windowed chirps. Physical Review X, 8(4), 41042. https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevx.8.041042.
Gruber, H. F. (1992). Photoinitiators for free radical polymerization. Progress in Polymer Science, 17(6), 953–1044. https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6700(92)90006-k.
Gutiérrez, T. J. (2017). Chapter 8. Chitosan applications for the food industry. In S. Ahmed & S. Ikram (Eds.), Chitosan: Derivatives, composites and applications (pp. 183–232). WILEY-Scrivener Publisher.. EE.UU. ISBN: 978-1-119-36350-7. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119364849.ch8.
Hawkins, K., Lawrence, M., Williams, P. R., & Williams, R. L. (2008). A study of gelatin gelation by Fourier transform mechanical spectroscopy. Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 148(1), 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnnfm.2007.05.016.
Hebeish, A., Hashem, M., El-Hady, M. M. A., & Sharaf, S. (2013). Development of CMC hydrogels loaded with silver nano-particles for medical applications. Carbohydrate Polymers, 92(1), 407–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.08.094.
Hennink, W. E., & van Nostrum, C. F. (2012). Novel crosslinking methods to design hydrogels. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 64, 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2012.09.009.
Higham, A. K., Bonino, C. A., Raghavan, S. R., & Khan, S. A. (2014). Photo-activated ionic gelation of alginate hydrogel: Real-time rheological monitoring of the two-step crosslinking mechanism. Soft Matter, 10(27), 4990–5002. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4sm00411f.
Hoffman, A. S. (2012). Hydrogels for biomedical applications. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 64, 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2012.09.010.
Holder, A. J., Badiei, N., Hawkins, K., Wright, C., Williams, P. R., & Curtis, D. J. (2018). Control of collagen gel mechanical properties through manipulation of gelation conditions near the sol-gel transition. Soft Matter, 14(4), 574–580. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7sm01933e.
Hull, T. R. (2008). 11 - Challenges in fire testing: Reaction to fire tests and assessment of fire toxicity. In A. R. Horrocks & D. B. T.-A. in F. R. M. Price (Eds.), Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles. Pp. 255–290. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845694701.2.255
Hwang, Y. J., & Lyubovitsky, J. G. (2013). The structural analysis of three-dimensional fibrous collagen hydrogels by raman microspectroscopy. Biopolymers, 99(6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1002/bip.22183.
Ishida, H., & Allen, D. J. (1996). Physical and mechanical characterization of near-zero shrinkage polybenzoxazines. Journal of Polymer Science: Par B Polymer Physics, 34(6), 1019–1030. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-0488(19960430)34:6<1019::aid-polb1>3.0.co;2-t.
Jiao, Y., Gyawali, D., Stark, J. M., Akcora, P., Nair, P., Tran, R. T., & Yang, J. (2012). A rheological study of biodegradable injectable PEGMC/HA composite scaffolds. Soft Matter, 8(5), 1499–1507. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1sm05786c.
Khan, F., Tanaka, M., & Ahmad, S. R. (2015). Fabrication of polymeric biomaterials: A strategy for tissue engineering and medical devices. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 3(42), 8224–8249. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5tb01370d.
Koohi, A. D., Moghaddam, A. Z., Sefti, M. V., & Moghadam, A. M. (2011). Swelling and gelation time behavior of sulfonated polyacrylamide/chromium triacetate hydrogels. Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part B, 50(10), 1905–1920. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222348.2010.549419.
Kopecek, J. (2009). Hydrogels: From soft contact lenses and implants to self-assembled nanomaterials. Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry, 47(22), 5929–5946. https://doi.org/10.1002/pola.23607.
Laftah, W. A., Hashim, S., & Ibrahim, A. N. (2011). Polymer hydrogels: A review. Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 50(14), 1475–1486. https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559.2011.593082.
Liao, H., Munoz-Pinto, D., Qu, X., Hou, Y., Grunlan, M. A., & Hahn, M. S. (2008). Influence of hydrogel mechanical properties and mesh size on vocal fold fibroblast extracellular matrix production and phenotype. Acta Biomaterialia, 4(5), 1161–1171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2008.04.013.
Ligon, S. C., Husár, B., Wutzel, H., Holman, R., & Liska, R. (2014). Strategies to reduce oxygen inhibition in photoinduced polymerization. Chemical Reviews, 114(1), 557–589. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr3005197.
Lin, C.-C., & Metters, A. T. (2006). Hydrogels in controlled release formulations: Network design and mathematical modeling. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 58(12), 1379–1408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2006.09.004.
Liu, W. G., & Yao, K. D. (2001). What causes the unfrozen water in polymers: Hydrogen bonds between water and polymer chains? Polymer, 42(8), 3943–3947. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(00)00726-6.
Liu, Z., Toh, W., & Ng, T. Y. (2015). Advances in mechanics of soft materials: A review of large deformation behavior of hydrogels. International Journal of Applied Mechanics, 07(05), 1530001. https://doi.org/10.1142/s1758825115300011.
Llorente, M. A., & Mark, J. E. (1979). Model networks of end-linked polydimethylsiloxane chains. IV. Elastomeric properties of the tetrafunctional networks prepared at different degrees of dilution. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 71(2), 682–689. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.438354.
Ma, P. X., & Elisseeff, J. (Eds.) (2005). Scaffolding in tissue engineering (1st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN: 9780429121272. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420027563.
Ma, S., Yu, B., Pei, X., & Zhou, F. (2016). Structural hydrogels. Polymer, 98, 516–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2016.06.053.
Magami, S. M. (2017). In situ viscoelasticity and in situ thermo-responsiveness in acrylic acid-based soft hydrogels. {IOP} Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 264, 12019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/264/1/012019.
Magami, S. M., & Abdulganiyyu, U. (2017). Raft approach to the copolymerisation of methyl methacrylate based polymeric micelles. Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 10(1), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v10i1.28.
Magami, S. M., & Williams, R. L. (2018). Gelation studies on acrylic acid-based hydrogels via in situ photo-crosslinking and rheology. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 135(38), 46691. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.46691.
Magami, S. M., & Williams, R. L. (2019a). Roles of the molecular weight of n-ethylene glycol diacrylates and UV irradiance on the mechanical properties at the gel point of acrylic acid based hydrogels. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 136(23), 47606. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.47606.
Magami, S. M., & Williams, R. L. (2019b). Gelation via actionic chelation/crosslinking of acrylic-acid-based polymers. Polymer International, 68(12), 1980–1991. https://doi.org/10.1002/pi.5910.
Magami, S. M. (2020). Comparative gelation of acrylic acid and acrylamide in diacrylate and dimethacrylate crosslinked matrices. Polymer Bulletin, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-020-03147-x.
Mathur, A. M., Hammonds, K. F., Klier, J., & Scranton, A. B. (1998). Equilibrium swelling of poly(methacrylic acid-g-ethylene glycol) hydrogels: Effect of swelling medium and synthesis conditions. Journal of Controlled Release, 54(2), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-3659(97)00186-7.
Matyjaszewski, K., Coca, S., Gaynor, S. G., Wei, M., & Woodworth, B. E. (1998). Controlled radical polymerization in the presence of oxygen. Macromolecules, 31(17), 5967–5969. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma9808528.
McGinnes, V. D. (1982). Photoinitiated polymerisation by aromatic carbonyl and alkylphenyl ketone compounds in developments in polymer photochemistry. London: Applied Science Publishers.
McKeen, L. W. (2009). Chapter 1- introduction to plastics and elastomers. In L. W. McKeen (Ed.), The effect of creep and other time related factors on plastics and elastomers (pp. 1–31). Pp: Second Edition. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-8155-1585-2.50003-0.
Mours, M., & Winter, H. H. (1994). Time-resolved rheometry. Rheologica Acta, 33(5), 385–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00366581.
Muthukumar, M. (1989). Screening effect on viscoelasticity near the gel point. Macromolecules, 22(12), 4656–4658. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00202a050.
Nair, L. S. (2016). Injectable hydrogels for regenerative engineering. London: Imperial College Press.
Namba, R. M., Cole, A. A., Bjugstad, K. B., & Mahoney, M. J. (2009). Development of porous PEG hydrogels that enable efficient, uniform cell-seeding and permit early neural process extension. Acta Biomaterialia, 5(6), 1884–1897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2009.01.036.
Neto, C. G. T., Giacometti, J. A., Job, A. E., Ferreira, F. C., Fonseca, J. L. C., & Pereira, M. R. (2005). Thermal analysis of chitosan based networks. Carbohydrate Polymers, 62(2), 97–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2005.02.022.
Niranjan, R., Koushik, C., Saravanan, S., Moorthi, A., Vairamani, M., & Selvamurugan, N. (2013). A novel injectable temperature-sensitive zinc doped chitosan/β-glycerophosphate hydrogel for bone tissue engineering. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 54, 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.11.026.
Noshadi, I., Walker, B. W., Portillo-Lara, R., Shirzaei Sani, E., Gomes, N., Aziziyan, M. R., & Annabi, N. (2017). Engineering biodegradable and biocompatible bio-ionic liquid conjugated hydrogels with tunable conductivity and mechanical properties. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 4345. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04280-w.
Oh, J., & Myung**, C. (2009). Patent No. US8663788B2. Available in: https://patents.google.com/patent/us8663788
Ortmans, G., & Hassiepen, M. (1989). Fire-resistant glazing and method of making same. U.S. Patent No. 4,830,913. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Available in: https://patents.google.com/patent/us4830913a/en
Pai, A., & Al-Singary, W. (2015). Durability, safety and efficacy of polyacrylamide hydrogel (Bulkamid(®)) in the management of stress and mixed urinary incontinence: Three year follow up outcomes. Central European Journal of Urology, 68(4), 428–433. https://doi.org/10.5173/ceju.2015.647.
Pastorczak, M., Kozanecki, M., & Ulanski, J. (2009). Water-polymer interactions in PVME hydrogels - Raman spectroscopy studies. Polymer, 50(19), 4535–4542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2009.07.048.
Patel, S. K., Malone, S., Cohen, C., Gillmor, J. R., & Colby, R. H. (1992). Elastic modulus and equilibrium swelling of poly(dimethylsiloxane) networks. Macromolecules, 25(20), 5241–5251. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00046a021.
Pechini, M. P. (1967). Patent No. 3330697.
Quinn, F. X., Kampff, E., Smyth, G., & McBrierty, V. J. (1988). Water in hydrogels. 1. A study of water in poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone/methyl methacrylate) copolymer. Macromolecules, 21(11), 3191–3198. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00189a012.
Rosiak, J. M., & Yoshii, F. (1999). Hydrogels and their medical applications. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 151(1), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-583x(99)00118-4.
Ruel-Gariépy, E., & Leroux, J.-C. (2004). In situ-forming hydrogels—Review of temperature-sensitive systems. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 58(2), 409–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2004.03.019.
Sannino, A., Demitri, C., & Madaghiele, M. (2009). Biodegradable cellulose-based hydrogels: Design and applications. Materials, 2(2), 353–373. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma2020353.
Sarkar, N. (1979). Thermal gelation properties of methyl and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 24(4), 1073–1087. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1979.070240420.
Scholz, F., & Kahlert, H. (2015). The calculation of the solubility of metal hydroxides, oxide-hydroxides, and oxides, and their visualisation in logarithmic diagrams. ChemTexts, 1(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-015-0006-0.
Shen, Y., Zhu, H., Wang, Y., Cui, H., & Sun, R. (2019). Applications and implications of environmental-responsive polymers toward agrochemicals. In T. Gutiérrez (Ed.), Polymers for Agri-food applications (pp. 67–90). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19416-1_5.
Singhal, R., & Gupta, K. (2016). A review: Tailor-made hydrogel structures (classifications and synthesis parameters). Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 55(1), 54–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559.2015.1050520.
Stammen, J. A., Williams, S., Ku, D. N., & Guldberg, R. E. (2001). Mechanical properties of a novel PVA hydrogel in shear and unconfined compression. Biomaterials, 22(8), 799–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0142-9612(00)00242-8.
Stuart, B. (2015). Infrared spectroscopy. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of chemical technology (pp. 1–18). https://doi.org/10.1002/0471238961.0914061810151405.a01.pub3.
Sun, G., Shen, Y.-I., Kusuma, S., Fox-Talbot, K., Steenbergen, C. J., & Gerecht, S. (2011). Functional neovascularization of biodegradable dextran hydrogels with multiple angiogenic growth factors. Biomaterials, 32(1), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.08.091.
te Nijenhuis, K. (2007). On the nature of crosslinks in thermoreversible gels. Polymer Bulletin, 58(1), 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-006-0610-7.
Menczel, J. D., & Prime, R. B. (2009). Thermal analysis of polymers. (1st ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470423837.
Tomadoni, B., Casalongué, C., & Alvarez, V. A. (2019). Biopolymer-based hydrogels for agriculture applications: Swelling behavior and slow release of agrochemicals. In T. Gutiérrez (Ed.), Polymers for Agri-food applications (pp. 99–125). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19416-1_7.
Toozs-Hobson, P., Al-Singary, W., Fynes, M., Tegerstedt, G., & Lose, G. (2012). Two-year follow-up of an open-label multicenter study of polyacrylamide hydrogel (Bulkamid®) for female stress and stress-predominant mixed incontinence. International Urogynecology Journal, 23(10), 1373–1378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-012-1761-8.
Valencia, G. A., Zare, E. N., Makvandi, P., & Gutiérrez, T. J. (2019). Self-Assembled carbohydrate polymers for food applications: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 18(6), 2009–2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12499.
Vural, S., Dikovics, K. B., & Kalyon, D. M. (2010). Cross-link density, viscoelasticity and swelling of hydrogels as affected by dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Soft Matter, 6(16), 3870–3875. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0sm00099j.
Williams, P. R., & Williams, R. L. (1997). Gel-point studies in reacting systems by shear wave dispersion measurements. Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 68(2), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0257(96)01510-8.
Winter, H. H. (1987). Can the gel point of a cross-linking polymer be detected by the G′ – G″ crossover? Polymer Engineering & Science, 27(22), 1698–1702. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.760272209.
Wu, Y.-H., & Freeman, B. D. (2009). Structure, water sorption, and transport properties of crosslinked N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone/N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide films. Journal of Membrane Science, 344(1), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2009.07.050.
Wychowaniec, J. K. (2017). Designing nanostructured peptide hydrogels containing graphene oxide and its derivatives for tissue engineering and biomedical applications (The University of Manchester). Available in: https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/files/64900745/full_text.pdf p 120.
Wyss, H. M. (2016). Rheology of soft materials. In A. Fernandez-Nieves & A. M. Puertas (Eds.), Fluids, colloids and soft materials (pp. 149–163). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119220510.ch9.
Xu, J., Liu, X., Ren, X., & Gao, G. (2018). The role of chemical and physical crosslinking in different deformation stages of hybrid hydrogels. European Polymer Journal, 100, 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2018.01.020.
Yagci, Y., Jockusch, S., & Turro, N. J. (2010). Photoinitiated polymerization: Advances, challenges, and opportunities. Macromolecules, 43(15), 6245–6260. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma1007545.
Zarrintaj, P., Jouyandeh, M., Ganjali, M. R., Hadavand, B. S., Mozafari, M., Sheiko, S. S., Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani, M., Gutiérrez, T. J., & Saeb, M. R. (2019). Thermo-sensitive polymers in medicine: A review. European Polymer Journal, 117, 402–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2019.05.024.
Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges the helpful discussions provided by Emeritus Professor Jim Guthrie (University of Leeds).
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Magami, S.M. (2020). Functional Crosslinked Hydrogels. In: Gutiérrez, T.J. (eds) Reactive and Functional Polymers Volume Two. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45135-6_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45135-6_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-45134-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-45135-6
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)