Abstract
This chapter discusses the findings of the study. It is structured in accordance with the six facets (the 6D’s) of the analytical framework set forth in the previous chapter: (1) drives, (2) drivers, (3) description, (4) direction, (5) deterrents, and (6) degree of policy transfer. Much of the discussion is based on the views and opinions of the interviewees. The analysis makes extensive use of direct quotes.
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Notes
- 1.
An international treaty linked to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which sets internationally binding emission reduction targets and commits its state parties to achieve those targets.
- 2.
Reached at the Paris climate conference (COP21) in 2015, the Paris Agreement is a legally binding global climate deal, which sets out a global action plan to limit global warming to below 2 °C.
- 3.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), an intergovernmental organization, was established in 1967 through the Bangkok Declaration. It aims at promoting regional stability and economic growth among its member states (currently ten): Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
- 4.
The previous ASEAN regional road safety strategy and action plan covered the period 2005–2010. In conjunction with the document, a special, multi-sector working group was established with representation from all ASEAN countries to coordinate and monitor activities at the regional level. The current ASEAN regional road safety strategy was officially adopted in 2015, and further updated in 2016.
- 5.
Bus Rapid Transit or BRT is a bus-based mass transit system, which seeks to emulate the performance and amenities of rail-based transit systems. Typically, BRT systems run on segregated lanes. BRT’s key advantage over rail transit is its lower cost (Pojani 2014).
- 6.
Referring to Light Rail Transit (e.g., trams) and Mass Rapid Transit (i.e., metros).
- 7.
A city in Metro Manila.
- 8.
Jakarta’s main river is Ciliwung, the natural flow of which was diverted into canals by Dutch colonizers, in the manner of Amsterdam. Despite the canal system, much of Jakarta is prone to flooding, particularly during the monsoon season.
- 9.
A research centre within the University of the Philippines, established in 1976. Previously known as Transport Training Center.
- 10.
As of 2019, the Hanoi Metro system is still under construction. In addition to ADB, Official Development Assistance (ODA) funding is provided by Japan, China, and France.
- 11.
The political couple Bayani Fernando and Marides Fernando served as Marikina mayors during 1992–2001 and 2001–2010, respectively (succeeding one another). Bayani Fernando has also served as Chairman of the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority.
- 12.
A Metro Manila city of about half a million inhabitants, Marikina is now tagged as the bicycle capital of the Philippines (with 77 km of cycling lanes).
- 13.
The capital of the North Sumatra province, about 2 million.
- 14.
Jakarta’s BRT system, inaugurated in 2004. Currently covering about 250 km, it is regarded as having had mixed success.
- 15.
Indonesia’s second largest city, after Jakarta.
- 16.
Up-to-date, Bangkok has created a single BRT line (Wu and Pojani 2016).
- 17.
Melbourne Bike Share, a government-owned scheme, operated between 2010 and 2019. In its last year of operation, the scheme costs AUD$2 million to run while each bike was only used once a day on average (The Age 30 August 2019).
- 18.
Although most academic publications are behind paywalls, the full text can often be accessed for free through sites such as https://www.ResearchGate.net or https://www.Academia.edu.
- 19.
The Green Line, which began operation in 1999.
- 20.
A planned megaproject that will link the Sumatra and Java islands via road and rail.
- 21.
Formally entitled ‘Roadmap for Transport Infrastructure Development for Metro Manila and its Surrounding Areas’, also referred to as ‘JICA Dream Plan’. The plan was approved in 2014, and covers the period until 2030.
- 22.
Provincial or municipal corporations, locally known as Badan Usaha Milik Daerah (BUMD).
- 23.
An academic association, the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (EASTS), helps local researchers to stay in touch once they return home. It has more than 1,500 members from all over Southeast Asia. It runs a biannual conference, and publishes an online journal (Asian Transport Studies).
- 24.
A historical quay on the Singapore River, now re-developed to accommodate tourist, entertainment, and commercial activities.
- 25.
PnR facilities allow auto-dependent commuters in the suburbs to leave their automobiles parked alongside rapid transport nodes (train stations, bus rapid transit terminals, and ferry terminals) and complete their journey to the city centre by rapid public transport.
- 26.
Universal Design is the design of a built environment in such a way that it can be accessed, understood, and used to the greatest extent possible by all people regardless of age, gender, size, or ability (physical or mental).
- 27.
This refers to the 20-mile expressway that runs between Daejon and Sejong.
- 28.
The North Luzon Expressway, which connects Metro Manila to the Central Luzon region.
- 29.
A city and a province north of Manila (northeast and northwest, respectively).
- 30.
A highway in Klang Valley, which runs through south-eastern Kuala Lumpur.
- 31.
Keretapi Tanah Melayu (or Malayan Railways Limited), the main rail operator in Peninsular Malaysia. A publicly owned corporation, it dates back to the British colonial era. In 2001, the Kuala Lumpur railway station’s role as the city’s main rail hub was supplanted by Kuala Lumpur Sentral (KL Sentral), a modern, intermodal transport hub.
- 32.
A project to rehabilitate the 120 km-long Klang River (Sungai Klang), which flows through Kuala Lumpur and pours into the Straits of Malacca. The river is now heavily polluted and the project seeks to clean the water, while also mitigating floods and develo** the riverbanks with commercial, residential, and recreational activities.
- 33.
A flat-bottomed wooden boat, sometimes including a small shelter on board. From Cantonese sāan báan, literally ‘three planks’.
- 34.
The Bund (Waitan) is a waterfront stretch in central Shanghai. Lined with colonial and other historical buildings, it faces the Pudong District, Shanghai’s modern CBD. ‘Bund’ literally means ‘embankment’, from Persian, ‘band’.
- 35.
Referring to Tioman Island, an island with pristine waters and lightly developed beaches, situated on the southeast coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It attracts tourists from both Kuala Lumpur and Singapore.
- 36.
A medium-sized city located 66 km (41 miles) north of Manila.
- 37.
Despite its name, 19 out of ABD’s 68 members are Western countries outside the Asia-Pacific region. Australia and New Zealand are members as well, and ADB has representative offices in Frankfurt and Washington, DC.
- 38.
Brand awareness is a term employed by business to describe the extent to which customers are able to recall or recognize a product. It is a key indicator of a brand’s competitive performance in the market.
- 39.
Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) of greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation. All Tiger Cub countries are non-annex parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. As such, they are obliged to report on the actions they have taken or plan on taking to implement the Convention. The reporting provisions were further enhanced through the Bali Action Plan adopted in 2007, which introduced the principle of Measurement, Reporting and Verification (UN 2014).
- 40.
The Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) is a national government agency responsible for managing Australia’s overseas aid programme.
- 41.
A city of 2.3 million, located 900 km north of Sydney.
- 42.
The Bay Area Rapid Transit, a heavy rail system inaugurated in 1972, which serves the San Francisco Bay Area, California. The total length is 180 km (112 miles).
- 43.
Stands for United States Agency for International Development, a federal agency primarily responsible for administering foreign aid and socio-economic development assistance. Among official aid agencies, USAID has one of the largest budgets in the world.
- 44.
ECAP ran between 2004 and 2008.
- 45.
According to the initiative’s Facebook page, ‘The Eco-Capitals Forum (ECF) is a global initiative to make diplomacy a vital driver of sustainable cities. ECF serves as a consortium for the diplomatic community to share best practices and challenges, leverage economies of scale to implement renewable energy and waste management solutions, and support and laud efforts by individual embassies to reduce their environmental footprints and costs. As a partnership between the diplomatic community, city government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local businesses, chapters of the ECF provides a unique platform for communities to come together for sustainability.’.
- 46.
The abbreviation stands for Intelligent Transportation Systems, an umbrella term which denotes the application of information and communication technologies in the field of transport.
- 47.
Between 1899 and 1946.
- 48.
Built in 1965. Formerly known as the North Diversion Road and Manila North Expressway. It connects Metro Manila to the Central Luzon region.
- 49.
Built in 1969. Formerly known as the South Superhighway, Manila South Diversion Road, and Manila South Expressway. It connects Metro Manila to the Calabarzon region.
- 50.
A popular means of public transportation, indigenous to the Philippines (Mateo-Babiano 2016). Jeepney’s colourful and kitsch decorations are considered as a symbol of local culture and artistic expression. To improve passenger comfort and reduce emissions, a jeepney modernization programme was launched in 2017.
- 51.
Stands for Asian Utility Vehicle—a cheaper, smaller, and simpler version of a Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV), marketed to develo** countries in Asia. Popular models in the Philippines are produced by Mitsubishi and Isuzu.
- 52.
Any two-wheeled motorcycle, ridden beyond its passenger capacity.
- 53.
Established in 1991, and named after JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency).
- 54.
Maria Lourdes ‘Marides’ Carlos-Fernando served as the Mayor of Marikina from 2001 to 2010.
- 55.
An upscale boulevard, lined with shop** malls and hotels, spanning about 2 km across Singapore’s centre.
- 56.
A glamorous shop** and entertainment district in Kuala Lumpur.
- 57.
A guided bus which hovers above road traffic. Also called ‘straddler bus’ or ‘tunnel bus’. The concept became popular in the mid-2010s but was later scrapped due to safety and other concerns.
- 58.
Meaning bus frequency.
- 59.
A 772 km expressway which runs from the Malaysia–Thailand border in the north to the Malaysia–Singapore border in the south, connecting all the major cities in western Peninsular Malaysia.
- 60.
Also known as the Kuala Lumpur Transport Strategic Plan. This plan was preceded by the Brunei Action Plan (BAP), adopted in 2010.
- 61.
However, an interviewee in Jakarta reports that, until now, there have been no concrete actions based on this plan.
- 62.
TransJakarta launched a feeder system in 2011, seven years after the beginning of operations.
- 63.
Yogyakarta’s BRT system, operational since 2008. Yogyakarta (often called Jogja) has 4 million inhabitants in its metropolitan area.
- 64.
Palembang’s BRT system.
- 65.
Pekanbaru’s BRT system.
- 66.
Denpasar’s BRT system. Denpasar is the capital of Bali (an island and a separate province).
- 67.
The Jakarta Post (10 October 2019) recently announced that five smaller Indonesian cities—Bandung (West Java), Batam (Riau Islands), Makassar (South Sulawesi), Pekanbaru (Riau), and Semarang (Central Java)—will receive 21 million Euro (Rp 326.5 billion) in grants from the governments of Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom to develop BRT systems.
- 68.
The Philippines’ second city, with nearly 3 million inhabitants in the metropolitan area.
- 69.
As of 2019, the Cebu BRT system is not operational yet.
- 70.
The Manila BRT project, one of 75 infrastructure flagship projects promoted by President Rodrigo Duterte’s administration, is now moving forward, with technical assistance from ITDP China and financial assistance from the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the French Development Agency (Agence Française de Développement or AFD).
- 71.
A multi-donor knowledge-transfer organization administered by the World Bank.
- 72.
A national agency under the Department of Transportation, which is in charge of policies, laws, and regulations related to public transport services (including urban public transport).
- 73.
Land Transport Authority.
- 74.
SPAD (Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat) is also known as the Land Public Transport Commission. JKR (Jabatan Kerja Raya) is the Malaysian Public Works Department. DBKL (Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur) is the Kuala Lumpur City Council. KTP (Keretapi Tanah Melayu) is the main rail operator in Peninsular Malaysia. KTM Komuter is a commuter rail system.
- 75.
In 2018, SPAD was dissolved, rebranded as Agensi Pengangkutan Awam Darat (APAD)—meaning Land Public Transport Agency—and absorbed into the Ministry of Transport.
- 76.
During the New Order era (1966–1998) under President Suharto, only three political parties were allowed to exist in Indonesia. Now, the number of parties that participate in elections has increased substantially (38 in the 2009 election), which precludes a majority winner; therefore, coalition governments have become the norm.
- 77.
The current plan covers the period between 2017 and 2022.
- 78.
A city of 2.5 million inhabitants in southern Philippines. It has the largest land area in the country.
- 79.
For a discussion on how the value capture approach can be used to stimulate TOD and finance rail transit and station area improvements, see Gihring (2009).
- 80.
The document was finally adopted in 2017.
- 81.
Referring to Ignasius Jonan, currently Minister for Energy and Mineral Resources.
- 82.
The index is formulated annually (https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018). It ranks 180 countries by their perceived levels of public sector corruption according to a survey of experts and businesspeople. A scale of 0 to 100 is used, where 0 is ‘highly corrupt’ and 100 is ‘free of corruption’. The figures reported here are for 2018.
- 83.
Mandaluyong City is one of the municipalities that make up Metro Manila. In 2011, the ADB funded 20 electric tricycles (e-trikes), and has been gradually scaling up that pilot project since.
- 84.
A major commercial centre in Makati, Metro Manila. It is partly located on Ayala Avenue, a 2 km thoroughfare nicknamed ‘the Wall Street of the Philippines’.
- 85.
Bordering municipalities in Metro Manila. Bonifacio Global City (also known as The Fort) is a major financial and commercial district in the region.
- 86.
Referring to Epifanio de los Santos, a semi-circular highway which circumscribes Manila.
- 87.
A major avenue in Metro Manila.
- 88.
Indonesian Ministry of National Development Planning, also called National Development Planning Agency (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional or Bappenas).
- 89.
Sustainable Urban Transport Improvement Project (SUTIP), a GIZ project (2009–2016) commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and executed locally by Bappenas.
- 90.
Minibuses.
- 91.
Yogyakarta is a special region, ruled by the Yogyakarta Sultanate, the only officially recognized monarchy within the government of Indonesia.
- 92.
According to the World Factbook produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/), Japan’s Gini Index of income inequality is 37.9. This compares to 36.8 in Indonesia, 44.4 in the Philippines, 44.5 in Thailand, and 46.2 in Malaysia. The Gini Index varies from 0 to 100, where 0 is perfect equality and 100 is perfect inequality.
- 93.
A municipal corporation that operates the newly inaugurated MRT system in Jakarta.
- 94.
Describes a situation where the nearest transit stop is too far to walk and too close to drive (even if finding parking is guaranteed).
- 95.
Many of Manila’s informal settlements are built on waterways. Heavily polluted, these feed into the Manila Bay. Historically, squatters have been neglected, or forced to resettle to distant provinces. More than a decade ago, the Philippines Supreme Court issued a mandate to municipalities in Metro Manila to clean up the waterways, and, as a consequence, the cities started relocating more than 100,000 families (more than half a million inhabitants). In a departure from previous approaches, the aim was to relocate people to nearby units or at least in city. However, the initiative has been controversial; many squatters are resistant to moving, the water quality of the Bay has not improved, and flood risk has not been mitigated.
- 96.
cc stands for cubic centimetres of displacement; in other words speed; 100 cc is considered average.
- 97.
The concept involves removing traffic lights along minor roads to improve flow and safety.
- 98.
A municipality in Metro Manila. The city built 52 km of bikeways in the mid-2000s, funded by a World Bank grant (US$1.3 million).
- 99.
The longest expressway in the Philippines, opened in 2008. It starts and ends north of Manila.
- 100.
The National Fire Protection Association standard. NFPA 130 is the Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems.
- 101.
In Indonesian: Badan Pengatur Jalan Tol (BPJT).
- 102.
This is the main railway station in Bangkok. Housed in a historic building, it is in the city centre (Pathum Wan District).
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Pojani, D. (2020). Transport Policy Transfer in ‘Tiger Cub’ City-Regions. In: Planning for Sustainable Urban Transport in Southeast Asia. The Urban Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41975-2_3
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