Background

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), particularly in advanced stages, is highly malignant and has an unfavorable prognosis [1]. Despite substantial advancements in treatment, the 5-year survival rate of patients with LUAD is 12–15% [2]. Currently available diagnostic methods, such as imaging, biopsy, and molecular testing, have limitations, including the high likelihood of false-negative results and the inability to detect early-stage LUAD [3]. In contrast, novel diagnostic techniques such as next-generation sequencing and companion diagnostics have demonstrated great potential in identifying genomic alterations and biomarkers that can facilitate early detection and prompt personalized treatment [4]. Additionally, novel techniques for detecting early-stage cancer and understanding its progression are under development [5]. Traditional therapeutic strategies such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy have disadvantages, including side effects, drug resistance, and the inability to treat advanced-stage LUAD [6]. However, novel therapies such as immunotherapy and targeted therapy, have shown beneficial effects in the treatment of LUAD. Therefore, develo** more effective diagnostic and treatment methods is necessary for improving the prognosis of patients with LUAD.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) modulate gene expression by binding to the 3´-untranslated region (UTR) of target mRNAs. They are small non-coding RNA (ncRNAs) that can either degrade the target mRNA or inhibit translation [7]. miRNAs play a crucial role in regulating the cell cycle, metastasis, angiogenesis, metabolism, and apoptosis, thus influencing tumorigenesis [8]. In lung cancer, miRNAs act as both tumor suppressors and oncomirs, regulating the expression of target mRNAs to influence tumor cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis [9]. miR-424-5p, a distinct miRNA variant, is involved in regulating gene expression and the progression of several cancer types [10]. For instance, it can hinder the proliferative, migratory, and invasive capabilities of lung cancer cells [11]. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are RNA transcripts that exceed 200 nucleotides in length and lack protein-coding ability but play a pivotal role in gene regulation [12]. lncRNAs can interact with DNA, RNA, and proteins to regulate chromatin structure, transcription, post-transcriptional processes, and translation [13]. They act as molecular decoys for miRNAs and regulate splicing, mRNA decay, translation, and protein stability [14]. In addition, they are involved in the development of various types of cancers, including LUAD [15]. For example, the lncRNA MALAT1 induces tumor cell proliferation and metastasis by regulating downstream genes in LUAD [16], and the lncRNA HOTAIR induces tumor cell proliferation and invasion by regulating downstream genes in LUAD [17]. lncRNAs can be used as biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of LUAD. The lncRNA AC144450.1, also known as ENSG00000228613, is involved in various biological processes, including cancer development [19]. It involves lncRNA acting as an endogenous sponge to effect mRNA expression via sinking miRNA [20]. ceRNAs have been reported to play a vital role in the initiation and development of LUAD [21]. lncRNAs and miRNAs that are inversely related to each other may serve as biomarkers for the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer [22].

The presence of excessive copper can induce cell death. The mechanisms underlying copper-induced cell death remained elusive until the identification of cuproptosis [Full size image