Abstract
Plants respond to different stresses using different mechanisms depending on the plant species and variety. This study aims to assess the physiological behavior of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) under various types of abiotic stress and to look for possible correlations between biochemical and physiological parameters during each stress. Simeto variety is grown in a hydroponic culture chamber and then subjected to four stresses (salinity, cold, heat, and drought) during the stem extension stage. The contents of water, chlorophyll, total sugars, and proline are measured on the fresh leaves of stressed plants. The highest proline values for salt and heat stress were 1.53 and 1.56 µmol/g fr wt, respectively. Water stress increased the content of soluble sugars by 59.62 µmol/g fr wt significantly. When compared to the control and cold stress (16.61 µg/g fr wt), salinity, drought, and heat stress significantly increased the chlorophyll content of cultivated wheat, which was 57.43 µg/g fr wt. Drought and salinity stresses were applied to cultivated durum wheat, resulting in a decrease in water content in fresh leaf tissues of 39.28 and 19.45%, respectively. The water content of the control wheat crop was 79.31%. Wheat’s stress response is based on an osmoregulatory mechanism that involves proline accumulation. Salt and heat were the primary stressors with the greatest negative impact on cultivated wheat. The most significant associations between heat stress and soluble sugars levels and their correlation with proline, and total chlorophyll content and its correlation with chlorophyll a were discovered.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1134%2FS1021443723601957/MediaObjects/11183_2024_8764_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1134%2FS1021443723601957/MediaObjects/11183_2024_8764_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1134%2FS1021443723601957/MediaObjects/11183_2024_8764_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1134%2FS1021443723601957/MediaObjects/11183_2024_8764_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1134%2FS1021443723601957/MediaObjects/11183_2024_8764_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1134%2FS1021443723601957/MediaObjects/11183_2024_8764_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1134%2FS1021443723601957/MediaObjects/11183_2024_8764_Fig7_HTML.png)
REFERENCES
Del Pozo, A., Matus, I., Ruf, K., Castillo, D., Méndez-Espinoza, A.M., and Serret, M.D., Genetic advance of durum wheat under high yielding conditions: The case of Chile, Agronomy, 2019, vol. 9, p. 454. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9080454
Shiferaw, B., Smale, M., Braun, H.-J., Duveiller, E., Reynolds, M., and Muricho, G., Crops that feed the world 10. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by wheat in global food security, Food Secur., 2013, vol. 5, p. 291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-013-0263-y
Aroca, R., Porcel, R., and Ruiz-Lozano, J.M., Regulation of root water uptake under abiotic stress conditions, J. Exp. Bot., 2012, vol. 63, p. 43. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/err266
Farooq, M., Wahid, A., Lee, D.-J., Cheema, S.A., and Aziz, T., Drought stress: Comparative time course action of the foliar applied glycinebetaine, salicylic acid, nitrous oxide, brassinosteroids and spermine in improving drought resistance of rice, J. Agron. Crop Sci., 2010, vol. 196, p. 336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2010.00422.x
Zegaoui, Z., Planchais, S., Cabassa, C., Djebbar, R., Belbachir, O.A., and Carol, P., Variation in relative water content, proline accumulation and stress gene expression in two cowpea landraces under drought, J. Plant Physiol., 2017, vol. 218, p. 26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2017.07.009
Khare, T., Srivastava, A.K., Suprasanna, P., and Kumar, V., Individual and additive stress impacts of Na+ and Cl‾ on proline metabolism and nitrosative responses in rice, Plant Physiol. Biochem., 2020, vol. 152, p. 44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.04.028
Dias, K.O.D.G., Gezan, S.A., Guimarães, C.T., Nazarian, A., da Costa e Silva, L., Parentoni, S.N., de Oliveira Guimarães, P.E., de Oliveira Anoni, C., Pádua, J.M.V., and de Oliveira Pinto, M., Improving accuracies of genomic predictions for drought tolerance in maize by joint modeling of additive and dominance effects in multi-environment trials, Heredity, 2018, vol. 121, p. 24. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41437-018-0053-6
Saeidi, M., Moradi, F., and Abdoli, M., Impact of drought stress on yield, photosynthesis rate, and sugar alcohols contents in wheat after anthesis in semiarid region of Iran, Arid Land Res. Manag., 2017, vol. 31, p. 204. https://doi.org/10.1080/15324982.2016.1260073
ElSayed, A.I., Rafudeen, M.S., and Golldack, D., Physiological aspects of raffinose family oligosaccharides in plants: protection against abiotic stress, Plant Biol., 2014, vol. 16, p. 1. https://doi.org/10.1111/plb.12053
Dettori, M., Cesaraccio, C., Motroni, A., Spano, D., and Duce, P., Using CERES-Wheat to simulate durum wheat production and phenology in Southern Sardinia, Italy, Field Crops Res., 2011, vol. 120, p. 179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2010.09.008
Lesaint, Ch., Coic method: Principle and practical application, Acta Hortic., 1982, vol. 126, p. 367. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.1982.126.43
Garnier, E. and Laurent, G., Leaf anatomy, specific mass and water content in congeneric annual and perennial grass species, New Phytol., 1994, vol. 128, p. 725. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04036.x
Bates, L.S., Waldren, R.P., and Teare, I.D., Rapid determination of free proline for water-stress studies, Plant Soil, 1973, vol. 39, p. 205. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00018060
Dubois, M., Gilles, K.A., Hamilton, J.K., and Rebers, P.T, Smith, F., Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances, Anal. Chem., 1956, vol. 28, p. 350. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60111a017
Arnon, D.I., Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts. Polyphenoloxidase in Beta vulgaris, Plant Physiol., 1949, vol. 24, p. 1. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.24.1.1
Hare, P.D., Cress, W.A., and Van Staden, J., Proline synthesis and degradation: a model system for elucidating stress-related signal transduction, J Exp Bot., 1999, vol. 50, p. 413. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/50.333.413
Ghosh, U.K., Islam, M.N., Siddiqui, M.N., Cao, X., and Khan, M.A.R., Proline, a multifaceted signalling molecule in plant responses to abiotic stress: Understanding the physiological mechanisms, Plant Biol., 2022, vol. 24, p. 227. https://doi.org/10.1111/plb.13363
Hayat, S., Hayat, Q., Alyemeni, M.N., Wani, A.S., Pichtel, J., and Ahmad, A., Role of proline under changing environment, Plant Signal Behav., 2012, vol. 7, p. 1456. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.21949
Nikolaeva, M.K., Maevskaya, S.N., Shugaev, A.G., and Bukhov, N.G., Effect of drought on chlorophyll content and antioxidant enzyme activities in leaves of three wheat cultivars varying in productivity, Russ. J. Plant. Physiol., 2010, vol. 57, p. 87. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443710010127
Ltaief, S. and Krouma, A., Functional dissection of the physiological traits promoting durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) tolerance to drought stress, Plants, 2023, vol. 12, p. 1420. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12071420
Chowdhury, M.K., Hasan, M.A., Bahadur, M.M., Islam, M.R., Hakim, M.A., Iqbal, M.A., Javed, T., Raza, A., Shabbir, R., and Sorour, S., Evaluation of drought tolerance of some wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes through phenology, growth, and physiological indices, Agronomy, 2021, vol. 11, p. 1792. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091792
Mwadzingeni, L., Shimelis, H., Tesfay, S., and Tsilo, T.J., Screening of bread wheat genotypes for drought tolerance using phenotypic and proline analyses, Front Plant Sci., 2016, vol. 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.01276
Ashraf, M.A., Iqbal, M., Rasheed, R., Hussain, I., Perveen, S., and Mahmood, S., Dynamic proline metabolism: importance and regulation in water-limited environments, in Plant Metabolites and Regulation Under Environmental Stress, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2018, p. 323. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812689-9.00016-9
Khatkar, D. and Kuhad, M.S., Short-term salinity induced changes in two wheat cultivars at different growth stages, Biol Plant., 2000, vol. 43, p. 629. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002868519779
Hellmann, H., Funck, D., Rentsch, D., and Frommer, W.B., Hypersensitivity of an Arabidopsis sugar signaling mutant toward exogenous proline application, Plant Physiol., 2000, vol. 122, p.357. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.122.2.357
Hu, M., Shi, Z., Zhang, Z., Zhang, Y., and Li, H., Effects of exogenous glucose on seed germination and antioxidant capacity in wheat seedlings under salt stress, Plant Growth Regul., 2012, vol. 68, p. 177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-012-9705-3
Ahmed, J.U. and Hassan, M.A., Evaluation of seedling proline content of wheat genotypes in relation to heat tolerance, Bangladesh J. Bot., 2011, vol. 40, p. 17. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjb.v40i1.7991
Katakpara, Z.A., Gajera, H.P., Vaja, K.N., Dabhi, K.H., and Golakiya, B.A., Evaluation of heat tolerance indices in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes based on physiological, biochemical and molecular markers, Indian J. Plant Physiol., 2016, vol. 21, p. 197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40502-016-0222-7
Wang, Y., **ong, F., Nong, S., Liao, J., **ng, A., Shen, Q., Ma, Y., Fang, W., and Zhu, X., Effects of nitric oxide on the GABA, polyamines, and proline in tea (Camellia sinensis) roots under cold stress, Sci. Rep., 2020, vol. 10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69253-y
Wang, Y.X., Yu, T.F., Wang, C.X., Wei, J.T., Zhang, S.X., Liu, Y.W., Chen, J., Zhou, Y.B., Chen, M., and Ma, Y.Z., Heat shock protein TaHSP17.4, a TaHOP interactor in wheat, improves plant stress tolerance, Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 2023, vol. 246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125694
Sami, F., Yusuf, M., Faizan, M., Faraz, A., and Hayat, S., Role of sugars under abiotic stress, Plant Physiol. Biochem., 2016, vol. 109, p. 54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.09.005
Rosa, M., Prado, C., Podazza, G., Interdonato, R., González, J.A., Hilal, M., and Prado, F.E., Soluble sugars, Plant Signal Behav., 2009, vol. 4, p. 388. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.4.5.8294
León, P. and Sheen, J., Sugar and hormone connections, Trends Plant Sci., 2003, vol. 8, p. 110. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1360-1385(03)00011-6
Rathinasabapathi, B., Metabolic engineering for stress tolerance: installing osmoprotectant synthesis pathways, Ann Bot., 2000, vol. 86, p. 709. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbo.2000.1254
Krasensky, J. and Jonak, C., Drought, salt, and temperature stress-induced metabolic rearrangements and regulatory networks, J. Exp. Bot., 2012, vol. 63, p. 1593. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/err460
Kameli, A. and Lösel, D.M., Growth and sugar accumulation in durum wheat plants under water stress, New Phytol., 1996, vol. 132, p. 57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1996.tb04508.x
Sairam, R.K., Rao, K.V., and Srivastava, G.C., Differential response of wheat genotypes to long term salinity stress in relation to oxidative stress, antioxidant activity and osmolyte concentration, Plant Sci., 2002, vol. 163, p. 1037. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.1997.tb00486.x
Chaib, G., Benlaribi, M., and Hazmoune, T., Accumulation d’osmoticums chez le blé dur (Triticum durum Desf.) sous stress hydrique, Eur. Sci. J., 2015, vol. 11. https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/6123.
Abdalla, M.M., Beneficial effects of diatomite on the growth, the biochemical contents and polymorphic DNA in Lupinus albus plants grown under water stress, Agric. Biol. J. North Am., 2011, vol. 2, p. 207. https://doi.org/10.5251/ABJNA.2011.2.2.207.220
Chen, H. and Jiang, J.G., Osmotic adjustment and plant adaptation to environmental changes related to drought and salinity, Environ. Rev., 2010, vol. 18, p. 309. https://doi.org/10.1139/A10-014
Arabzadeh, N., The effect of drought stress on soluble carbohydrates (sugars) in two species of Haloxylon persicum and Haloxylon aphyllum, Asian J. Plant Sci., 2012, vol. 11, p. 44. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajps.2012.44.51
Cao, X., Mondal, S., Cheng, D., Wang, C., Liu, A., Song, J., Li, H., Zhao, Z., and Liu, J., Evaluation of agronomic and physiological traits associated with high temperature stress tolerance in the winter wheat cultivars, Acta Physiol. Plant., 2015, vol. 37, p. 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-015-1835-6
Munjal, R. and Dhanda, S.S., Assessment of drought resistance in Indian wheat cultivars for morpho-physiological traits, Ekin J. Crop Breed Genet., 2016, vol. 2, p. 74. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ekinjournal/issue/22787/243195.
Huihui, Z., Yuze, H., Kaiwen, G., Zisong, X., Liu, S., Wang, Q., Wang, X., Nan, X., Wu, Y., and Guangyu, S., Na+ accumulation alleviates drought stress induced photosynthesis inhibition of PSII and PSI in leaves of Medicago sativa, J. Plant Interact., 2021, vol. 16, p. 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/17429145.2020.1866091
Yang, C., Zhang, Z., Gao, H., Fan, X., Liu, M., and Li, X., The mechanism by which NaCl treatment alleviates PSI photoinhibition under chilling-light treatment, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B., 2014, vol. 140, p. 286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2014.08.012
Ma, Q., Yue, L.J., Zhang, J.L., Wu, G.Q., Bao, A.-K., and Wang, S.M., Sodium chloride improves photosynthesis and water status in the succulent xerophyte Zygophyllum xanthoxylum, Tree Physiol., 2012, vol. 32, p. 4. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpr098
Jiang, Y. and Huang, B., Drought and heat stress injury to two cool-season turfgrasses in relation to antioxidant metabolism and lipid peroxidation, Crop Sci., 2001, vol. 41, p. 436. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2001.412436x
Parida, A.K. and Das, A.B., Salt tolerance and salinity effects on plants: a review, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 2005, vol. 60, p. 324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.06.010
Almeselmani, M., Deshmukh, P.S., and Chinnusamy, V., Effects of prolonged high temperature stress on respiration, photosynthesis and gene expression in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties differing in their thermotolerance, Plant Stress, 2012, vol. 6, p. 25. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v3n3p127
Abdelmoghny, A.M., Raghavendra, K.P., Sheeba, J.A., Santosh, H.B., Meshram, J.H., Singh, S.B., Kranthi, K.R., and Waghmare, V.N., Morpho-physiological and molecular characterization of drought tolerance traits in Gossypium hirsutum genotypes under drought stress, Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants, 2020, vol. 26, p. 2339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-020-00890-3
Boyer, J.S., James, R.A., Munns, R., Condon, T.A., and Passioura, J.B., Osmotic adjustment leads to anomalously low estimates of relative water content in wheat and barley, Funct. Plant Biol., 2008, vol. 35, p. 1172. https://doi.org/10.1071/FP08157
Farooq, M., Wahid, A., Kobayashi, N., Fujita, D., Basra, S.M.A., Plant drought stress: Effects, mechanisms and management, Agron Sustain Dev., 2009, vol. 29, p. 185. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2008021
Soni, S., Kumar, A., Sehrawat, N., Kumar, N., Kaur, G., Kumar, A., and Mann, A., Variability of durum wheat genotypes in terms of physio-biochemical traits against salinity stress, Cereal Res. Commun., 2021, vol. 49, p. 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42976-020-00087-0
Cui, Y.N., **a, Z.R., Ma, Q., Wang, W.Y., Chai, W.W., and Wang, S.M., The synergistic effects of sodium and potassium on the xerophyte Apocynum venetum in response to drought stress, Plant Physiol. Biochem. PPB., 2019, vol. 135, p. 489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2018.11.011
Morant-Manceau, A., Pradier, E., and Tremblin, G., Osmotic adjustment, gas exchanges and chlorophyll fluorescence of a hexaploid triticaleand its parental species under salt stress, J. Plant Physiol., 2004, vol. 161, p. 25. https://doi.org/10.1078/0176-1617-00963
Oulmi, A., Benmahammed, A., Laala, Z., Adjabi, A., and Bouzerzour, H., Phenotypic variability and relations between the morpho-physiological traits of three F5 populations of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) evaluated under semi-arid conditions, Adv. Environ Biol., 2014, p. 436.
Wang, W., Wang, X., Lv, Z., Khanzada, A., Huang, M., Cai, J., Zhou, Q., Huo, Z., and Jiang, D., Effects of Cold and Salicylic Acid Priming on Free Proline and Sucrose Accumulation in Winter Wheat Under Freezing Stress, J. Plant Growth Regul., 2022, vol. 41, p. 2171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-021-10412-4
Kocsy, G., Pál, M., Soltész, A., Szalai, G., Boldizsár, Á., Kovács, V., and Janda, T., Low temperature and oxidative stress in cereals, Acta Agron Hung., 2011, vol. 59, p. 169. https://doi.org/10.1556/AAgr.59.2011.2.7
Zeng, Y., Yu, J., Cang, J., Liu, L., Mu, Y., Wang, J., and Zhang, D., Detection of sugar accumulation and expression levels of correlative key enzymes in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) at low temperatures, Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 2011, vol. 75, p. 681. https://doi.org/10.1271/bbb.100813
Funding
This work was supported by ongoing institutional funding. No additional grants to carry out or direct this particular research were obtained.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors of this work declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
ETHICS APPROVAL AND CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
This work does not contain any studies involving human and animal subjects.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note.
Pleiades Publishing remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mallem, H., Nakkab, S. & Houyou, Z. Biochemical Mechanisms in Durum Wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) under Abiotic Stress, Grown in a Hydroponic System. Russ J Plant Physiol 71, 7 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443723601957
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443723601957