Abstract
Purpose: Freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs) in the alpine region driven by global warming is an important abiotic perturbation that affects soil pore structure and soil organic. However, the mechanisms of interaction between soil aggregate structure and carbon fractions during FTCs are unclear. Methods: In this study, soil samples were collected from two typical alpine ecosystems in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau region, and soil aggregates were categorized into three sizes: >2 mm, 0.25–2 mm, and < 0.25 mm. The experiments consisted of 12 FTCs (0, 1, 3, 6 and 12 cycles) (freezing at -10 ℃ for 24 h and thawing at 15 ℃ for 24 h). Aggregate structure and carbon fractions were quantified using CT scanning and physical classification, respectively. Results: FTCs increased total porosity, open porosity, pore volume and the surface area density of soil aggregates. After freeze-thaw cycles, the pore volume of > 2 mm and 0.25–2 mm aggregates increased by 65.55% and 31.85%, respectively. FTCs greatly reduced the particulate organic carbon (POC), mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) and total organic carbon (TOC) contents of soil aggregates, while the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) content exhibited an initial increase followed by a decrease trend. During the FTCs, the structure of soil aggregates, including aggregate size and open pore structure, significantly affected carbon fraction content. In > 2 mm aggregates, the POC, MAOC, and TOC contents were negatively correlated with open pore porosity, surface area density, porosity (< 30 μm) and pore mean volume. In 0.25–2 mm aggregates, the POC, MAOC, and TOC contents were negatively correlated with the pore number density and pore length density of soil aggregates, and were positively correlated with the mean pore volume and porosity (> 200 μm) of soil aggregates. Conclusion: In typical alpine ecosystems, the pores within soil aggregates were mainly open pores. Freeze-thaw cycles substantially influenced the pore structure, especially open pores, and the carbon fractions content. There was a close interaction between the pore structure of soil aggregates and carbon content under repeated freeze-thaw cycles.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42729-024-01904-9/MediaObjects/42729_2024_1904_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42729-024-01904-9/MediaObjects/42729_2024_1904_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42729-024-01904-9/MediaObjects/42729_2024_1904_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42729-024-01904-9/MediaObjects/42729_2024_1904_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42729-024-01904-9/MediaObjects/42729_2024_1904_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42729-024-01904-9/MediaObjects/42729_2024_1904_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42729-024-01904-9/MediaObjects/42729_2024_1904_Fig7_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bailey VL, Pries CH, Lajtha K (2019) What do we know about soil carbon destabilization? Environ Res Lett 14. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab2c11
Campbell JL, Reinmann AB, Templer PH (2014) Soil freezing effects on sources of Nitrogen and Carbon Leached during Snowmelt. Soil Sci Soc Am J 78:297–308. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2013.06.0218
Chai YJ, Zeng XB, Bai ESZ, Su LY, Huang SM T (2014) Effects of freeze-thaw on aggregate stability and the organic carbon and nitrogen enrichment ratios in aggregate fractions. Soil Use Manag 30:507–516. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12153
Chang R, Liu S, Chen L, Li N, Bing H, Wang T, Chen X, Li Y, Wang G (2021) Soil organic carbon becomes newer under warming at a permafrost site on the Tibetan Plateau. Soil Biol Biochem 152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.108074
Chen G, Zhu HL, Zhang Y (2003) Soil microbial activities and carbon and nitrogen fixation. Res Microbiol 154:393–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0923-2508(03)00082-2
De Baldovino JA, dos Santos Izzo J, Rose RL J L (2021) Effects of Freeze-thaw cycles and Porosity/cement index on durability, strength and Capillary rise of a stabilized Silty Soil under Optimal Compaction conditions. Geotech Geol Eng 39:481–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01507-y
Elbasiouny H, El-Ramady H, Elbehiry F, Rajput VD, Minkina T, Mandzhieva S (2022) Plant Nutrition under Climate Change and Soil Carbon Sequestration. Sustainability 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020914
Feng X, Nielsen LL, Simpson MJ (2007) Responses of soil organic matter and microorganisms to freeze-thaw cycles. Soil Biol Biochem 39:2027–2037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.03.003
Gao Z, Hu X, Li XY, Li ZC (2021) Effects of freeze-thaw cycles on soil macropores and its implications on formation of hummocks in alpine meadows in the Qinghai Lake watershed, northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J Soils Sediments 21:245–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-020-02765-2
Golchin A, Oades JM, Skjemstad JO, Clarke P (1994) Study of free and occluded particulate organic-matter in soils by solid-state C-13 CP/MAS NMR-spectroscopy and scanning electron-microscopy. Aust J Soil Res 32:285–309. https://doi.org/10.1071/sr9940285
Grogan P, Michelsen A, Ambus P, Jonasson S (2004) Freeze-thaw regime effects on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in sub-arctic heath tundra mesocosms. Soil Biol Biochem 36:641–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2003.12.007
Han D, Hu Z, Wang X, Wang T, Chen A, Weng Q, Liang M, Zeng X, Cao R, Di K, Luo D, Zhang G, Yang Y, He H, Fan J, Yu G (2022) Shift in controlling factors of carbon stocks across biomes on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Environ Res Lett 17. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac78f5
Horn R, Smucker A (2005) Structure formation and its consequences for gas and water transport in unsaturated arable and forest soils. Soil Tillage Res 82:5–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2005.01.002
Ji X, Liu M, Yang J, Feng F (2022) Meta-analysis of the impact of freeze-thaw cycles on soil microbial diversity and C and N dynamics. Soil Biol Biochem 168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2022.108608
Kong AYY, Six J, Bryant DC, Denison RF, van Kessel C (2005) The relationship between carbon input, aggregation, and soil organic carbon stabilization in sustainable crop** systems. Soil Sci Soc Am J 69:1078–1085. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.0215
Kravchenko AN, Guber AK (2017) Soil pores and their contributions to soil carbon processes. Geoderma 287:31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.06.027
Kravchenko AN, Negassa WC, Guber AK, Rivers ML (2015) Protection of soil carbon within macro-aggregates depends on intra-aggregate pore characteristics. Sci Rep 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16261
Lavallee JM, Soong JL, Cotrufo MF (2020) Conceptualizing soil organic matter into particulate and mineral-associated forms to address global change in the 21st century. Glob Chang Biol 26:261–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14859
Lehrsch GA, Sojka RE, Carter DL, Jolley PM (1991) Freezing effects on aggregate stability affected by texture, mineralogy, and organic-matter. Soil Sci Soc Am J 55:1401–1406. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1991.03615995005500050033x
Liang A, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Yang X, McLaughlin N, Chen X, Guo Y, Jia S, Zhang S, Wang L, Tang J (2019) Investigations of relationships among aggregate pore structure, microbial biomass, and soil organic carbon in a mollisol using combined non-destructive measurements and phospholipid fatty acid analysis. Soil Tillage Res 185:94–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.09.003
Liu L, Zhuang QL, Zhao DS, Zheng D, Kou D, Yang YH (2022) Permafrost Degradation diminishes terrestrial ecosystem Carbon Sequestration Capacity on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Global Biogeochem Cy 36. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021gb007068
Lugato E, Morari F, Nardi S, Berti A, Giardini L (2009) Relationship between aggregate pore size distribution and organic-humic carbon in contrasting soils. Soil till Res 103:153–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2008.10.013
Ma R, Jiang Y, Liu B, Fan H (2021) Effects of pore structure characterized by synchrotron-based micro-computed tomography on aggregate stability of black soil under freeze-thaw cycles. Soil Tillage Res 207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2020.104855
Oztas T, Fayetorbay F (2003) Effect of freezing and thawing processes on soil aggregate stability. CATENA 52:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0341-8162(02)00177-7
Pagliai M, Vignozzi N (2001) The soil pore system as an indicator of soil quality. Paper presented at the International Conference on Sustainable Soil Management for Environmental Protection, Florence, Italy
Patel KF, Tatariw C, MacRae JD, Ohno T, Nelson SJ, Fernandez IJ (2021) Repeated freeze-thaw cycles increase extractable, but not total, carbon and nitrogen in a Maine coniferous soil. Geoderma 402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115353
Pawluk S (1988) Freeze-thaw effects on granular strecture reorganization for soil materials of varyying texture and moisture-content. Can J Soil Sci 68:485–494. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjss88-047
Peng X, Frauenfeld OW, Cao B, Wang K, Wang H, Su H, Huang Z, Yue D, Zhang T (2016) Response of changes in seasonal soil freeze/thaw state to climate change from 1950 to 2010 across China. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 121:1984–2000. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jf003876
Poeplau C, Don A, Six J, Kaiser M, Benbi D, Chenu C, Cotrufo MF, Derrien D, Gioacchini P, Grand S, Gregorich E, Griepentrog M, Gunina A, Haddix M, Kuzyakov Y, Kuehnel A, Macdonald LM, Soong J, Trigalet S, Vermeire ML, Rovira P, van Wesemael B, Wiesmeier M, Yeasmin S, Yevdokimov I, Nieder R (2018) Isolating organic carbon fractions with varying turnover rates in temperate agricultural soils - a comprehensive method comparison. Soil Biol Biochem 125:10–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.06.025
Quigley MY (2019) Contribution of Soil Pores to the Processing and Protection of Soil Carbon at Micro-Scale. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://doi.org/10.25335/r2rx-zm73
Rooney EC, Bailey VL, Patel KF, Dragila M, Battu AK, Buchko AC, Gallo AC, Hatten J, Possinger AR, Qafoku O, Reno LR, SanClements M, Varga T, Lybrand RA (2022) Soil pore network response to freeze-thaw cycles in permafrost aggregates. Geoderma 411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115674
Ruamps LS, Nunan N, Chenu C (2011) Microbial biogeography at the soil pore scale. Soil Biol Biochem 43:280–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.10.010
Ruamps LS, Nunan N, Pouteau V, Leloup J, Raynaud X, Roy V, Chenu C (2013) Regulation of soil organic C mineralisation at the pore scale. Fems Microbiol Ecol 86:26–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/1574-6941.12078
Six J, Elliott ET, Paustian K, Doran JW (1998) Aggregation and soil organic matter accumulation in cultivated and native grassland soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 62:1367–1377. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1998.03615995006200050032x
Six J, Paustian K, Elliott ET, Combrink C (2000) Soil structure and organic matter: I. distribution of aggregate-size classes and aggregate-associated carbon. Soil Sci Soc Am J 64:681–689. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2000.642681x
Six J, Conant RT, Paul EA, Paustian K (2002) Stabilization mechanisms of soil organic matter: implications for C-saturation of soils. Plant Soil 241:155–176. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1016125726789
Six J, Bossuyt H, Degryze S, Denef K (2004) A history of research on the link between (micro)aggregates, soil biota, and soil organic matter dynamics. Soil Tillage Res 79:7–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2004.03.008
Skvortsova EB, Shein EV, Abrosimov KN, Romanenko KA, Yudina AV, Klyueva VV, Khaidapova DD, Rogov VV (2018) The impact of multiple freeze-thaw cycles on the microstructure of aggregates from a Soddy-Podzolic Soil: a microtomographic analysis. Eurasian Soil Sci 51:190–198. https://doi.org/10.1134/s1064229318020102
Song Y, Zou Y, Wang G, Yu X (2017) Altered soil carbon and nitrogen cycles due to the freeze-thaw effect: a meta-analysis. Soil Biol Biochem 109:35–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2017.01.020
Torrance JK, Elliot T, Martin R, Heck RJ (2008) X-ray computed tomography of frozen soil. Cold Reg Sci Technol 53:75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.04.010
Wang RZ, Hu X (2023) Pore structure characteristics and organic carbon distribution of soil aggregates in alpine ecosystems in the Qinghai Lake basin on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.Catena.2023.107359. Catena 231.
Waring BG, Sulman BN, Reed S, Smith AP, Averill C, Creamer CA, Cusack DF, Hall SJ, Jastrow JD, Jilling A, Kemner KM, Kleber M, Liu XJA, Pett-Ridge J, Schulz M (2020) From pools to flow: the PROMISE framework for new insights on soil carbon cycling in a changing world. Global Change Biol 26:6631–6643. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15365
Watanabe T, Tateno R, Imada S, Fukuzawa K, Isobe K, Urakawa R, Oda T, Hosokawa N, Sasai T, Inagaki Y, Hishi T, Toda H, Shibata H (2019) The effect of a freeze-thaw cycle on dissolved nitrogen dynamics and its relation to dissolved organic matter and soil microbial biomass in the soil of a northern hardwood forest. Biogeochem 142:319–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-019-00537-w
**e SB, Qu JJ, Lai YM, Zhou ZW, Xu XT (2015) Effects of freeze-thaw cycles on soil mechanical and physical properties in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J Mountain Sci 12:999–1009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3384-7
Yudina A, Kuzyakov Y (2023) Dual nature of soil structure: the unity of aggregates and pores. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116478
Zhang K, Liu H (2018) Research progresses and prospects on freeze-thaw erosion in the black soil region of Northeast China. Sci Soil Water Conserv 16:17–24. https://doi.org/10.16843/j.sswc.2018.01.003
Zhang Z, Ma W, Feng W, **ao D, Hou X (2016) Reconstruction of Soil Particle Composition during Freeze-Thaw Cycling: a review. Pedosphere 26:167–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1002-0160(15)60033-9
Zhang W, Li S, Xu Y, Liu X, An T, Zhu P, Peng C, Wang J (2019) Advances in Research on relationships between Soil Pore structure and soil Miocroenvironment and Organic Carbon turnover. J Soil Water Conserv 33:1–9. https://doi.org/10.13870/j.cnki.stbcxb.2019.04.001
Zhang L, Ren F, Li H, Cheng D, Sun B (2021a) The influence mechanism of Freeze-Thaw on Soil Erosion: a review. Water 13 https://doi.org/10.3390/w13081010
Zhang X, Gregory AS, Whalley WR, Coleman K, Neal AL, Bacq-Labreuil A, Mooney SJ, Crawford JW, Soga K, Illangasekare TH (2021b) Relationship between soil carbon sequestration and the ability of soil aggregates to transport dissolved oxygen. Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115370
Zhao Y, Hu X (2023) A pore-scale investigation of soil aggregate structure responding to freeze-thaw cycles using X-ray computed microtomography. J Soils Sediments. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-023-03539-2
Zhao Y, Hu X, Li X, Jiang L, Gao Z (2021) Evaluation of the impact of freeze-thaw cycles on the soil pore structure of alpine meadows using X-ray computed tomography. Soil Sci Soc Am J 85:1060–1072. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20256
Zhao D, Zhu Y, Wu S, Lu Q (2022) Simulated response of soil organic carbon density to climate change in the Northern Tibet permafrost region. Geoderma 405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115455
Zheng Y, Ma W, Bing H (2015) Impact of freezing and thawing cycles on structure of soils and its mechanism analysis by laboratory testing. Rock Soil Mech 36:1282–12871294. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2015.05.006
Zhuang H, Shan B, Chen X (2018) Response characteristics of Soil Labile Organic Carbon in Plough Layer of Black Soil under simulated freeze-thaw conditions. J North-East Univ 46:77–80. https://doi.org/10.13759/j.cnki.dlxb.2018.06.015
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the National Science Foundation of China (Grant number: 42371107) and a project supported by the State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology (2022-TS-03).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no confict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, YP., Hu, X. Soil Open Pore Structure Regulates Soil Organic Carbon Fractions of soil Aggregates under Simulated Freeze‑Thaw Cycles as Determined by X‑ray Computed Tomography. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-024-01904-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-024-01904-9