Abstract
This work intends to understand the microstructure evolution of new and enhanced boron-containing high-speed tool steel. The solidification reactions of investigated steels are discussed under equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions. The Thermo-Calc program was utilized to predict the microstructure characteristics of studied high-speed tool steel in equilibrium conditions. On the other hand, the Schiel-Gulliver simulation model was applied to explore the influence of the cooling rate on the microstructure of the examined steel produced under non-equilibrium conditions. The effect of boron addition and production conditions (equilibrium and non-equilibrium) on microstructure evolution and their effect on hardness and wear resistance were discussed. The results demonstrate that both variations of boron contents and production conditions affect the solidification reaction sequences and the volume fraction of different phases and their types. The microstructure of the boron-containing steel is well homogenous distributed, dense, and higher ferrite volume fractions change with boron contents. The boron-containing steel is characterized by resistance to wear, about 117 and 230% of standard AISIM2 tool steel in equilibrium and non-equilibrium production conditions, respectively. The Expected Life Cycle Cost Analysis of the innovative boron-containing AISIM2 high speed tool steel is summarized as the following: The total production cost per part is reduced by 10–20% due to the double working lifetime of the innovative boron-containing AISIM2 high speed tool steel. Double-cutting feed cuts cost by a further 10–15%, so the total reduced production cost per produced material is 20–40%. Tool replacing, which causes production stops and is often due to broken tools, is reduced to 30%.
Graphical Abstract
![](http://media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Figa_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig7_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig8_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig9_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig10_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig11_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig12_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13632-023-00965-z/MediaObjects/13632_2023_965_Fig13_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that has been used is available for sharing.
References
H.O. Andren, Ş Karagöz, C. Guang-Jun, L. Lundin, H.F. Fischmeister, Carbide precipitation in chromium steels. Surf. Sci. 246, 246–251 (1991)
S. Karagoz, H.F. Fischmeister, Cutting performance and microstructure of high-speed steels: contributions of matrix strengthening and undissolved carbides. Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 29(1), 205–216 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-998-0173-3
K. Sinha, Physical metallurgy handbook. McGraw-Hill (2003).
E. Keehan, L. Karlsson, H.O. Andrén, H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Influence of carbon, manganese, and nickel on microstructure and properties of strong steel weld metals: part 3–increased strength resulting from carbon additions. Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 11(1), 19–24 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1179/174329306X77858
Kalandyk and J. Kasińska, Effects of rare earth metal addition on wear resistance of chromium-molybdenum cast steel. Archives Found. Eng. (2017).
M.S. Kim, W.J. Oh, G.Y. Baek, Y.K. Jo, K.Y. Lee, S.H. Park, D.S. Shim, Ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification of high-speed tool steel (AISI M4) layered via direct energy deposition. J. Mater. Proc. Technol. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.116420
P. Jovičević-Klug, B. Podgornik, Comparative study of conventional and deep cryogenic treatment of AISI M3: 2 (EN 1. 3395) high-speed steel. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 9(6), 3118–13127 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.09.071
H. Peng, L. Hu, T. Ngai, L. Li, X. Zhang, H. **e, W. Gong, Effects of austenitizing temperature on microstructure and mechanical property of a 4-GPa-grade PM high-speed steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.02.010
Michalcová, V. Pečinka, Z. Kačenka, J. Šerák, J. Kubásek, P. Novák, D. Vojtěch, Microstructure, mechanical properties, and thermal stability of carbon-free high-speed tool steel strengthened by intermetallics compared to Vanadis 60 Steel Strengthened by carbides. Metals. 11(12), 1901 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/met11121901
P. Jovičević-Klug, G. Puš, M. Jovičević-Klug, B. Žužek, B. Podgornik, Influence of heat treatment parameters on the effectiveness of deep cryogenic treatment on properties of high-speed steels. Mat. Sci. Eng. A. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.142157
Q.X. Dai, A.D. Wang, X.N. Cheng, L. Cheng, Effect of alloying elements and temperature on strength of cryogenic austenitic steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 311(1–2), 205–210 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(00)01796-2
E. Bayer, HIP-tool materials, powder metallurgy. International. 16(3), 117–120 (1984)
H.A. Garner, G.J. Del Corso, Powder metallurgy tool steels. Adv. Mater. Processes. 149(4), 25–27 (1996)
L.A. Dobrzański, M. Adamiak, G.E. D’Errico, Relationship between erosion resistance and the phase and chemical composition of PVD coatings deposited onto high-speed steel. J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 2–93(30), 184–189 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(99)00185-5
L.A. Dobrzański, M. Adamiak, Structure and properties of the TiN and Ti(C, N) coatings deposited in the PVD process on high-speed steels. J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 133(1–2), 50–62 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00244-3
L.A. Dobrzański, M. Adamiak, The structure and properties of PVD coated PM high-speed steels. Key Eng. Mater. (2001). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM
L.A. Dobrzański, A. Zarychta, M. Ligarski, High-speed steels with the addition of niobium or titanium. J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 63(1–3), 531–541 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(96)02678-7
F. Pan, M. Hirohashi, Y. Lu, P. Ding, A. Tang, D.V. Edmonds, Carbides in high-speed steels containing silicon. Metall. and Mater. Trans. A. 35(9), 2757–2766 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-004-0222-5
Dobrzański, M. Ligarski, Role of Ti in the W-Mo-V high-speed steels, Proceedings of the 4th International Scientific Conference "Achieve. Mech. Mater. Eng. " AMME'95, Gliwice-Wisła, 87-90 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(96)02558-7
H. Halfa, Characterization of electroslag remelted super hard high-speed tool steel containing niobium. St. Res. Int. 84(5), 495–510 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/srin.201200332
H. Fischmeister, Ş Karagöz, H.O. Andren, An atom probe study of secondary hardening in high-speed steels. Acta Metall. 36(4), 817–825 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160(88)90136-8
H. Halfa, Microstructure–wear resistance relationship of nitrogen-containing high-speed tool steel, AISIM41: non-equilibrium solidification. Metallograp. Microstruc. Anal. 11(3), 495–512 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13632-022-00851-0
H. Halfa, A.H. Seikh, H.S. Abdo, I.A. Alnaser, M.S. Soliman, S.M. Ragab, Study on the microstructure of vanadium-modified tungsten high-speed steel-coded SAE-AISI T1 steel. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3469305
H. Halfa, Thermodynamic calculation for silicon modified AISIM2 high-speed tool steel. J. Miner. Mater. Charact. Eng. 1(5), 257–270 (2013). https://doi.org/10.4236/jmmce.2013.15040
M. Tabuchi, M. Kondo, K. Kubo, S.K. Albert, Improvement of type IV creep cracking resistance of 9Cr heat-resisting steels by boron addition. OMNI. 3(3), 1–11 (2004)
I. Mejía, E. López-Chipres, C. Maldonado, A. Bedolla-Jacuinde, J.M. Cabrera, Modeling of the hot deformation behavior of boron micro-alloyed steels under uniaxial hot-compression conditions. Int. J. Mater. Res. 99(12), 1336–1345 (2008). https://doi.org/10.3139/146.101771
D.J. Mun, E.J. Shin, K.C. Cho, J.S. Lee, Y.M. Koo, Cooling rate dependence of boron distribution in low carbon steel. Metall. and Mater. Trans. A. 43, 1639–1648 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-011-0997-0
B. Hwang, D.W. Suh, S.J. Kim, Austenitizing temperature and hardenability of low-carbon boron steels. Scripta Mater. 64(12), 1118–1120 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2011.03.003
A.A. Akberdin, A.S. Kim, R.B. Sultangaziev, Analysis of the chemical transformations in the BaO–B 2 O 3–C system. Russian Metallurgy (Metally). 2021, 1010–1015 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0036029521080024
G.A. Baglyuk, L.A. Posnyak, Powder metallurgy wear-resistant materials based on iron. Part 2. Materials hot-pressed from porous compacts. Powder Metall. Met. Ceram. 40, 174–178 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011983623603
H. Humadi, J.J. Hoyt, N. Provatas, Phase-field-crystal study of solute trap**. Phys. Rev. E. 87(2), 022404 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.87.022404
S.L. Sobolev, Effects of local non-equilibrium solute diffusion on rapid solidification of alloys. Phys. Status Solidi. 156, 293–303 (1996)
B. Sundman, B. Jansson, J.O. Andersson, The thermo-Calc databank system. Calphad. 9(2), 153–190 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-5916(85)90021-5
B. Sundman, J. Ågren, A regular solution model for phases with several components and sublattices, suitable for computer applications. J. Phys. Chem. Sol. 42(4), 297–301 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3697(81)90144-X
G.C. Coelho, J.A. Golczewski, H.F. Fischmeister, Thermodynamic calculations for Nb-containing high-speed steels and white-cast-iron alloys. Mater. Trans. A. 34(9), 1749–1758 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-003-0141-x
Y.H. Zhou, The application and performance of diamond and pcbn tools in difficult-to-cut materials. Sol. Stat. Phenom. 263, 90–96 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.263.90
Acknowledgements
This work is achieved in the steel technology Dept., Central Metallurgical Research and Development Institute, CMRDI, Egypt.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
HH: Conceptualization, Supervision, Methodology, Writing – Original draft, Writing – Review & Editing, Investigation, Visualization, Formal analysis.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that he has no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Halfa, H. Study on Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium Solidification of Boron-Containing High-Speed Tool Steel: Effect of Cooling Rate and Microstructure Investigation. Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. 12, 455–475 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13632-023-00965-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13632-023-00965-z