Abstract
The Sheikhan Limestone of Eocene age has been studied in detail covering its microfacies analysis, depositional setting, being a reservoir potential, and diagenetic sequence. For this purpose, two best exposed geological sections at Sheikhan Nala and Panoba section, Kohat Basin (Pakistan) have been selected. The techniques used for this research work are petrographic analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), cathodoluminescence (CL), pore plug porosity, and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis. Typically, the Sheikhan Limestone is compacted, fossiliferous, and yellowish-grey in color, medium-thin bedded limestone with interbedded shale partings. The thickness of the studied limestone is 32 m to 44 m in the Sheikhan Nala and Panoba sections, respectively. A petrographic study reveals that calcite occurs in the form of micrite with a minor quantity of spare. Carbonate-filled fractures are common, as micro-veins. Detailed study reveals the diagenetic processes, and these include the imprints of micritization, neomorphism, cementation, compaction, dissolution, and fracturing. The dissolution and fractures enhance the reservoir characteristic, whereas clay minerals, micritization, compaction, and cementation reduces the reservoir potential of Sheikhan Limestone. The outcrop and petrographic studies have been used as a powerful tool to identify different microfacies. Based on all petrographic studies and microfacies analysis, it is suggested that the Eocene Sheikhan Limestone has been deposited under a shallow neritic inner shelf environment. Dissolution and fractures enhance the reservoir characteristics, whereas micritization, cementation, and compaction reduce the reservoir quality.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data included in this study are available upon request by contact with the corresponding author.
References
Abbasi IA, McElory R (1991) Thrust kinematics in the Kohat Plateau, Trans Indus Salt Range, Pakistan. J Struct Geol 13(3):319–327
Abu El Ghar MS, Khalifa MA, Hussein AW (2015) Carbonate diagenesis of the mixed clastic–carbonate Galala Formation, North Eastern Desert, Egypt. Arab J Geosci 8(5):2551–2565
Ahmad S (2003) A comparative study of structural styles in the Kohat Basin, NW Himalayas, NWFP. Pakistan Ph.D. Thesis, NCE Geology, University of Peshawar Pakistan, p 120
Ahmad S (2010) Paleogene foraminiferal stratigraphy and facies distribution; implications for the tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Kohat Basin, Potwar Basin and the Trans Indus Ranges, Northwest Pakistan (Ph.D. Thesis), University of Edinburgh, UK
Ahmad S, Wadood B, Khan S, Ahmed S, Ali F, Saboor A (2020) Integrating the palynostratigraphy, petrography, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy data for evaluating hydrocarbon reservoir potential of Jurassic rocks in the Kala Chitta Range, Northwest Pakistan. J Petrol Explor Prod Technol 10(8):3111–3123
Ahmad F, Quasim MA, Ahmad AHM (2021a) Microfacies and diagenetic overprints in the limestones of Middle Jurassic Fort Member (Jaisalmer Formation), Western Rajasthan, India: implications for the depositional environment, cyclicity, and reservoir quality. Geol J 56(1):130–151
Ahmad S, Khan S, Wadood B, Naseer A, Noman M, Wadood J, Muslim M (2021b) Late Cretaceous pelagic laminites at the northwestern margin of Indian plate, Pakistan: implications for basin bathymetry and ophiolite emplacement. Carbonates Evaporites 36(2):1–15
Ahr WM (2008) A new genetic classification of carbonate porosity and its application to reservoir characterization. In: American Association of Petroleum Geology Annual Convention (Abstract), San Antonio, pp 20–23
Ahr WM, Stanton RJ (1973) The sedimentologic and paleoecologic significance of Lithotrya, a rock-boring barnacle. J Sediment Res 43(1):20–23
Ahsan N, Chaudhry MN (2008) Geology of Hettangian to middle Eocene rocks of Hazara and Kashmir basins, Northwest lesser Himalayas, Pakistan. Geol Bull Panjab Univ 43:131–152
Bathurst RGC (1975) Carbonate sediment and their diagenesis. Elsevier, North Holland, p 658
Davies LM (1926) Notes on the geology of Kohat, with reference to the homotaxial position of the salt marl at Bahadur khel: Asiatic Soc. Bengal J Proc New Ser 20:207–224
Dunham RJ (1962) Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures
Fahad M, Khan MA, Hussain J, Ahmed A, Yar M (2021) Microfacies analysis, depositional settings and reservoir investigation of Early Eocene Chorgali Formation exposed at Eastern Salt Range, Upper Indus Basin, Pakistan. Carbonates Evaporites 36(3):1–18
Flugel E (1982) Microfacies analysis of limestones. Springer, Berlin, p 633
Flugel E (2004) Microfacies of carbonate rocks, analysis interpretation and application. Springer, Berlin, p 976
Flügel E (2010) Microfacies and archaeology. Microfacies of carbonate rocks. Springer, Berlin, pp 903–915
Folk RL (1959) Practical petrographic classification of limestones. AAPG Bull 43(1):1–38
Gardezi SAH, Ahmad S, Ikram N, Rehman G (2021) Geological constraints on the Western Kohat foreland basin, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan: implication from 2D and 3D structural modelling. Iran J Earth Sci 13(2):61–76
Gee ER (1945) The age of the saline series of the Punjab and Kohat. Proc Natl Acad Sci India 14(pt. 6):269–310
Geel T (2000) Recognition of stratigraphic sequences in carbonate platform and slope deposits: empirical models based on microfacies analysis of Palaeogene deposits in southeastern Spain. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 155(3–4):211–238
Ghazi S, Sharif S, Zafar T, Riaz M, Haider R, Hanif T (2020) Sedimentology and stratigraphic evolution of the Early Eocene Nammal Formation, Salt Range, Pakistan. Stratigr Geol Correl 28(7):745–764
Hodges KV (2000) Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives. Geol Soc Am Bull 112(3):324–350
Hooke JM (2016) Morphological impacts of flow events of varying magnitude on ephemeral channels in a semiarid region. Geomorphology 252:128–143
Hussain H, Zhang S (2018) Structural evolution of the Kohat Fold and thrust Belt in the shakardarra area (south eastern Kohat, Pakistan). Geosciences 8(9):311
Hussein AW, Abd El-Rahman Y (2020) Diagenetic evolution of the Eocene ramp carbonates (a paradigm from the Nile Valley, Egypt): petrographical and geochemical attributes. Mar Pet Geol 119:104484
Hussain SA, Han FQ, Han J, Khan H, Widory D (2020) Chlorine isotopes unravel conditions of formation of the Neoproterozoic rock salts from the Salt Range Formation, Pakistan. Can J Earth Sci 57(6):698–708
Ishaq M, Jan IU, Hanif M, Awais M (2019) Microfacies and diagenetic studies of the early Eocene Sakesar Limestone, Potwar Plateau, Pakistan: approach of reservoir evaluation using outcrop analogue. Carbonates Evaporites 34(3):623–656
Ishaq M, Ali L, Muhammad S, Din IU, Yaseen M, Ullah H (2020) Potentially toxic elements’ occurrence and risk assessment through water and soil of Chitral urban environment, Pakistan: A case study. Environ Geochem Health 42(12):4355–4368
Jadoon IA, Hinderer M, Kausar AB, Qureshi AA, Baig MS, Basharat M, Frisch W (2015) Structural interpretation and geo-hazard assessment of a locking line: 2005 Kashmir Earthquake, western Himalayas. Environ Earth Sci 73(11):7587–7602
Jafarian E, Kleipool LM, Scheibner C, Blomeier DPG, Reijmer JJG (2017) Variations in petrophysical properties of Upper Palaeozoic mixed carbonate and non-carbonate deposits, Spitsbergen, Svalbard Archipelago. J Pet Geol 40(1):59–83
Jafarian A, Javanbakht M, Koeshidayatullah A, Pimentel N, Salad Hersi O, Yahyaei A, Beigi M (2018) Paleoenvironmental, diagenetic, and eustatic controls on the Permo-Triassic carbonate–evaporite reservoir quality, Upper Dalan and Kangan formations, Lavan Gas Field, Zagros Basin. Geol J 53(4):1442–1457
James NP, Jones B (2015) Origin of carbonate sedimentary rocks. John Wiley & Sons
Kashif M, Cao Y, Yuan G, Jian W, Cheng X, Sun P, Hassan S (2019) Diagenesis impact on a deeply buried sandstone reservoir (Es1 member) of the Shahejie Formation, Nanpu Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, East China. Aust J Earth Sci 66(1):133–151
Kazmi AH, Rana RA (1982) Tectonic map of Pakistan, at a scale of 1:200000. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta
Kazmi AH, Jan MQ (1997) Geology and tectonics of Pakistan. Graphic Publisher, Karachi, pp 1–554
Khan MA, Rehman SU, Mehmood K, Khan MA, Ahsan N (2013) Geochemical characterization and petrogenesis of Niat-Jal amphibolites, southeast Kohistan, Pakistan. Iran J Sci Technol 37:147–159
Khan N, Ahmed I, Ishaq M, u Jan I, Khan W, Awais M, Khan B (2020) Reservoir potential evaluation of the Middle Paleocene Lockhart Limestone of the Kohat Basin, Pakistan: petrophysical analyses. Int J Econ Environ Geol 11(1):1–9
Khattak A, Ahmed N, Hussein I, Qazi A, Alikhan S, Rehman A, Iqbal N (2014) Spatial distribution of salinity in shallow groundwater used for crop irrigation. Pak J Bot 46(2):531–537
Lee MW, Collett TS (2009) Gas hydrate saturations estimated from fractured reservoir at site NGHP-01-10, Krishna-Godavari Basin, India. J Geophys Res Solid Earth. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JB006237
Leila M, Moscariello A, Kora M, Mohamed A, Samankassou E (2020) Sedimentology and reservoir quality of a Messinian mixed siliciclastic-carbonate succession, onshore Nile Delta, Egypt. Mar Pet Geol 112:104076
Malik A, Kumar A, Kandpal H (2019) Morphometric analysis and prioritization of sub-watersheds in a hilly watershed using weighted sum approach. Arab J Geosci 12(4):118
Mather A (2007) Arid environments. In: Perry C, Taylor K (eds) Environmental sedimentology, 1st edn. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp 144–189
McDougall JW, Hussain A (1991) Fold and thrust propagation in the western Himalaya based on a balanced cross section of the Surghar Range and Kohat Plateau, Pakistan (1). AAPG Bull 75(3):463–478
Meissner CR, Master JM, Rashid MA Hussain M (1974) Stratigraphy of the Kohat quadrangle, West Pakistan. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 716-D, pp 1–75
Miao Z, Gong E, Zhang Y, Guan C, Huang W (2020) Burial dolomitization, the genesis of dolomite in the Dapu Formation (Upper Carboniferous), Guixinan area, Youjiang basin, Southwest China: petrologic and geochemical evidence. Carbonates Evaporites 35:1–14
Minisini D, Desjardins P, Otharán G, Paz M, Kietzmann D, Eberli G, Heine C (2020a) Sedimentology, depositional model, and implications for reservoir quality. AAPG Memoir 121: Integrated Geology of Unconventionals: The Case of the Vaca Muerta Play, Argentina, pp 201–236. https://doi.org/10.1306/13682228M1203264
Minisini D, Desjardins P, Otharán G, Paz M, Kietzmann D, Eberli G, Heine C (2020b) Sedimentology, depositional model, and implications for reservoir quality. AAPG, pp 201–236
Muhammad K, Cao Y, Naveed A, Muhammad A, Yuan G, ** K, Orkhan I (2021) Characteristics and genesis of the Es1 productive sandstone reservoir (Paleogene), Nanpu Sag, East China. Acta Geol Sin 95(3):909–927 (English Edition)
Nagappa Y (1959) Foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the Cretaceous–Eocene succession in the India–Pakistan–Burma region. Micropaleontology 5(2):145–177
Najman Y, Appel E, Boudagher-Fadel M, Bown P, Carter A, Garzanti E, Vezzoli G (2010) Timing of India-Asia collision: geological, biostratigraphic, and palaeomagnetic constraints. J Geophys Res Solid Earth. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JB007673
Nawaz M, Ub N, Bukhari SAA, Khan S (2015) Petrophysical analysis of Lockhart Limestone with porosity and thickness correlation of exposed Lockhart Limestone at Nathia Gali with subsurface Lockhart Limestone of Chanda deep-01 well in Upper Indus basin. J Himal Earth Sci 48:59–63
Onoue T, Stanley GD (2008) Sedimentary facies from Upper Triassic reefal limestone of the Sambosan accretionary complex in Japan: mid-ocean patch reef development in the Panthalassa Ocean. Facies 54(4):529–547
Onoue T, Chablais J, Martini R (2009) Upper Triassic reefal limestone from the Sambosan accretionary complex in Japan and its geological implication. J Geol Soc Japan 115(6):292–295
Paracha W (2004) Kohat plateau with reference to Himalayan tectonic general study. In: Canadian society of exploration geophysicists conference, pp 46–51
Pascoe EH (1950–1964) A manual of geology of India and Burma. 1950, vol 1; 1959, vol 2; 1964, vol 3. Govt. India Press, Calcutta, pp 1–2130
Peyrotty G, Rigaud S, Kemkin I, Martini R (2020) Sedimentology and biostratigraphy of upper Triassic atoll-type carbonates from the Dalnegorsk area, Taukha terrane, far East Russia. Glob Planet Change 184:103072
Pickering KT, Pouderoux H, McNeill LC, Backman J, Chemale F, Kutterolf S, Dugan B (2020) Sedimentology, stratigraphy and architecture of the Nicobar Fan (Bengal–Nicobar Fan System), Indian Ocean: results from international Ocean discovery program expedition 362. Sedimentology 67(5):2248–2281
Pivnik DA, Wells NA (1996) The transition from Tethys to the Himalaya as recorded in northwest Pakistan. Geol Soc Am Bull 108(10):1295–1313
Pomar L (2001) Types of carbonate platforms, a genetic approach. Basin Res 13:313–334
Priddy CL, Clarke SM (2020) The sedimentology of an ephemeral fluvial–aeolian succession. Sedimentology 67(5):2392–2425
Qiang ZT (1998) Carbonate reservoir geology. Press of the University of Petroleum, Dongying, pp 27–54
Rizwan M, Hanif M, Ali N, Ur Rehman M (2020) Microfacies analysis and depositional environments of the Upper Cretaceous Fort Munro Formation in the Rakhi Nala Section, Sulaiman range, Pakistan. Carbonates Evaporites 35(4):1–20
Roy AB, Purohit R (2018) Geology of the Gondwana Supergroup. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 273–285
Sameeni S, Lipps JH (2009) Paleogene biostratigraphy of Kohat area northern Pakistan. Geol Bull Punjab Univ 44:27–42
Scoffin TP (1987) An introduction to carbonate sediments and rocks. Blackie, Glasgow
Senowbari-Daryan B, Chablais J, Martini R (2010) New crustacean microcoprolites of the Upper Triassic limestones of the Sambosan accretionary complex, Japan. J Paleontol 84(1):98–108
Sercombe WJ, Pivnik DA, Wilson WP, Albertin ML, Beck RA, Stratton MA (1998) Wrench faulting in the northern Pakistan foreland. AAPG Bull 82(11):2003–2030
Shah SMI (1977) Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Memoir; 12
Shah S M I (2009) Stratigraphy of Pakistan (memoirs of the geological survey of Pakistan). The Geological Survey of Pakistan, pp 22
Sinapour M, Seyrafian A (2021) Microfacies and sedimentary environment of the Jahrum formation, south-central Zagros basin. Carbonates Evaporites 36(4):1–19
Taghavi AA, Mork A, Emadi MA (2006) Sequence stratigraphically controlled diagenesis governs reservoir quality in the carbonate Dehluran Field, southwest Iran. Pet Geosci 12:115–126
Tiab D, Donaldson EC (2015) Petrophysics: theory and practice of measuring reservoir rock and fluid transport properties. Gulf Professional Publishing, Amsterdam
Treloar PJ, Izatt CN (1993) Tectonics of the Himalayan collision between the Indian Plate and the Afghan block: a synthesis. In: Treloar PJ, Searle MP (eds) Himalayan tectonics, vol 74. Geological Society, London, pp 69–87
Tucker ME (1988) Techniques in sedimentology. Blackwell Scientific Publications
Valdiya KS (1997) Himalaya, the northern frontier of East Gondwanaland. Gondwana Res 1(1):3–9
Wadood B, Ahmad S, Khan S (2018) Sedimentary microfacies analysis and reservoir characterization of the middle jurassic carbonates: a case study from lower Indus Basin, Pakistan. International field exploration and development conference. Springer, Singapore, pp 1994–2000
Wadood B, Khan S, Liu Y, Li H, Rahman A (2021a) Investigating the impact of diagenesis on reservoir quality of the Jurassic shallow shelfal carbonate deposits: Kala Chitta Range, North Pakistan. Geol J 56(2):1167–1186
Wadood B, Khan S, Li H, Wadood J, Ahmad S, Khan A (2021b) The Middle Permian (Capitanian) carbonate platform evolution and stratigraphic architecture of a Neo-Tethys rim basin, Central Pakistan. Geol J 56(8):4080–4101
Warren J (2000) Dolomite: occurrence, evolution and economically important associations. Earth Sci Rev 52(1–3):1–81
Wilson HH (1975) Time of hydrocarbon expulsion, paradox for geologists and geochemists. AAPG Bulletin 59(1):69–84
Yin A (2006) Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen as constrained by along-strike variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and foreland sedimentation. Earth Sci Rev 76(1–2):1–131
Zhang D, Song J (2014) Mechanisms for geological carbon sequestration. Procedia IUTAm 10:319–327
Zidi M, Touir J, El Albani A, Boulvain F (2021) Sedimentology and carbonatogenesis of the Upper Campanian Limestones in Jebel Berda (South Central Tunisia). J Afr Earth Sci 182:104284
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledged the Department of Earth Sciences to provide the basic facilities as well as the Center of the Excellence University of Peshawar, Pakistan for providing experimental facilities, and this research work was funded by ourselves.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to writing, interpreting, removing grammatical mistakes, software work, etc.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Ethical approval
Work is original and not submitted to any other journal.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Salim, A., Kashif, M., Dou, B. et al. Sedimentology and diagenesis control on reservoir quality of Sheikhan Limestone (Eocene) at the Panoba and Sheikhan Nala Section, Kohat Basin, Pakistan. Carbonates Evaporites 37, 64 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-022-00809-x
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-022-00809-x