Abstract
Organisms may retain nonfunctional anatomical features as a consequence of evolutionary natural selection. Resultant atavistic and vestigial anatomical structures have long been a source of perplexity. Atavism is when an ancestral trait reappears after loss through an evolutionary change in previous generations, whereas vestigial structures are remnants that are largely or entirely functionless relative to their original roles. While physicians are cognizant of their existence, atavistic and vestigial structures are rarely emphasized in anatomical curricula and can, therefore, be puzzling when discovered incidentally. In addition, the literature is replete with examples of the terms atavistic and vestigial being used interchangeably without careful distinction between them. We provide an overview of important atavistic and vestigial structures in the head, neck, and spine that can serve as a reference for anatomists and clinical neuroscientists. We review the literature on atavistic and vestigial anatomical structures of the head, neck, and spine that may be encountered in clinical practice. We define atavistic and vestigial structures and employ these definitions consistently when classifying anatomical structures. Pertinent anatomical structures are numerous and include human tails, plica semilunaris, the vomeronasal organ, levator claviculae, and external ear muscles, to name a few. Atavistic and vestigial structures are found throughout the head, neck, and spine. Some, such as human tails and branchial cysts may be clinically symptomatic. Literature reports indicate that their prevalence varies across populations. Knowledge of atavistic and vestigial anatomical structures can inform diagnoses, prevent misrecognition of variation for pathology, and guide clinical interventions.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
References
Abhaya A (2016) Interparietal bones of the adult human skull. J Anat Soc India. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasi.2016.08.315
Aboitiz F, Montiel JF (2021) The enigmatic Reissner’s fiber and the origin of chordates. Front Neuroanat 15:703835. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2021.703835
Abouheif E, Favé M-J, Ibarrarán-Viniegra AS, Lesoway MP, Rafiqi AM, Rajakumar R (2013) Eco-evo-devo: the time has come. Adv Exp Med Biol. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7347-9_6
Açar G, Emine Çiçekcibaşı A (2021) Surgical anatomy of the temporal bone. Oral Maxillofac Surg. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93223
Adams A, Mankad K, Offiah C, Childs L (2015) Branchial cleft anomalies: A pictorial review of embryological development and spectrum of imaging findings. Insights Imaging 7:69–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13244-015-0454-5
Agaton-Bonilla FC, Gay-Escoda C (1996) Diagnosis and treatment of branchial cleft cysts and fistulae. A retrospective study of 183 patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 25:449–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0901-5027(96)80081-6
Alsadat-Hashemipour M, Tahmasbi-Arashlow M, Fahimi-Hanzaei F (2013) Incidence of impacted mandibular and maxillary third molars-a radiographic study in a southeast Iran population. Medicina Oral Patología Oral y Cirugia Bucal. https://doi.org/10.4317/medoral.18028
Arends G, Schramm U (2004) The structure of the human semilunar plica at different stages of its development a morphological and morphometric study. Ann Anat 186:195–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0940-9602(04)80002-5
Aso M, Kawaguchi T, Mihara M, Shimao S, Morimoto K, Sakinaga Y (1987) Pseudotail associated with spinal dysraphism. Dermatology 174:45–48. https://doi.org/10.1159/000248980
Aydoğ ST, Özçakar L, Demiryürek D, Bayramoğlu A, Yörübulut M (2007) An intervening thoracic outlet syndrome in a gymnast with Levator claviculae muscle. Clin J Sport Med 17:323–325. https://doi.org/10.1097/jsm.0b013e3180321275
Azab WA, Alsheikh TM, Hegazy RM, Shohoud SA (2014) Blake′s pouch cyst and Werdnig-Hoffmann disease: report of a new association and review of the literature. Surg Neurol Int 5:282. https://doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.139390
Bademci G, Yaşargil MG (2006) Microsurgical anatomy of the hypoglossal nerve. J Clin Neurosci 13:841–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2005.12.028
Barkhoudarian G, Kelly DF (2017) The pituitary gland: anatomy, physiology, and its function as the master gland. Cushing’s Dis. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-804340-0.00001-2
Bejder L, Hall BK (2002) Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss. Evol Dev 4:445–458. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-142x.2002.02033.x
Benes M, Kachlik D, Belbl M, Kunc V, Havlikova S, Whitley A, Kunc V (2021) A meta-analysis on the anatomical variability of the brachial plexus: part I—roots, trunks, divisions and cords. Ann Anat 238:151751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aanat.2021.151751
Benning SD (2011) Postauricular and superior auricular reflex modulation during emotional pictures and sounds. Psychophysiology 48:410–414. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01071.x
Benson MT, Dalen K, Mancuso AA, Kerr HH, Cacciarelli AA, Mafee MF (1992) Congenital anomalies of the branchial apparatus: embryology and pathologic anatomy. Radiographics 12:943–960. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiographics.12.5.1529135
Blakemore E (2021) What was the neolithic revolution? [WWW Document]. Culture. URL https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/neolithic-agricultural-revolution (Accessed 7.30.22).
Blasi DE, Moran S, Moisik SR, Widmer P, Dediu D, Bickel B (2019) Human sound systems are shaped by post-neolithic changes in bite configuration. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav3218
Bonatto Paese CL, Hawkins MB, Brugmann SA, Harris MP (2021) Atavisms in the avian hindlimb and early developmental polarity of the limb. Dev Dyn 250:1358–1367. https://doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.318
Bontognali M, Poretti A, Guzman R, Huisman TAGM, Ramelli GP (2017) Blake’s pouch cyst in children: atypical clinical presentation. Neuroradiol J 31:430–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/1971400917698855
Broughton M, Fyfe GM (2013) The superficial musculoaponeurotic system of the face: a model explored. Anat Res Int 2013:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/794682
Bussey KJ, Cisneros LH, Lineweaver CH, Davies PC (2017) Ancestral gene regulatory networks drive cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:6160–6162. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1706990114
Cai C, Shi O, Shen C (2011) Surgical treatment of a patient with human tail and multiple abnormalities of the spinal cord and column. Adv Orthop 2011:1–4. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/153797
Calabrò F, Arcuri T, **kins JR (2000) Blake’s pouch cyst: an entity within the Dandy-Walker continuum. Neuroradiology 42:290–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002340050888
Carter K, Worthington S (2015) Predictors of third molar impaction. J Dent Res 95:267–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034515615857
Castañeyra-Perdomo A, Carmona-Calero EM, Pérez-González H, Martínez-Peña y Valenzuela I, Plaza-Moreno P, Ormazabal-Ramos C, González-Marrero I, Trujillano-Dorado A, Ferres-Torres R (2004) Ontogenic development of the human subcommissural organ. Eur J Anat 8:107–120
Charles-de-Sá L, Gontijo-de-Amorim NF, Loureiro Claro V, Vieira DM, de Andrade GM, Dantas-Rocha L, da Silva CG, Abboudib JH, de Castro CC (2020) Does the approach of the lateral platysmal bands widen the gap between the medial bands? Plastic Reconstr Surg Global Open. https://doi.org/10.1097/gox.0000000000002853
Chavan VS, Giri PJ (2019) Human tail: a benign condition hidden out of social stigma and shame in young adult—a case report and review. Asian J Neurosurg 14:1. https://doi.org/10.4103/ajns.ajns_209_17
Chen Y, Zhang Y, Jiang T-X, Barlow AJ, StAmand TR, Hu Y, Heaney S, Francis-West P, Chuong C-M, Maas R (2000) Conservation of early odontogenic signaling pathways in aves. Proc Natl Acad Sci 97:10044–10049. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.160245097
Chou J, Walters A, Hage R, Zurada A, Michalak M, Tubbs RS, Loukas M (2013) Thyroglossal duct cysts: anatomy, embryology and treatment. Surg Radiol Anat 35:875–881. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00276-013-1115-3
Cilento BW (2013) Superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS). Encyclopedia of otolaryngology head and neck surgery. Springer, Berlin, pp 2616–2617. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23499-6_375
Cinamon U (2009) The growth rate and size of the mastoid air cell system and mastoid bone: a review and reference. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 266:781–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-009-0941-8
Cinamon U, Sadé J (2003) Mastoid and tympanic membrane as pressure buffers: a quantitative study in a middle ear cleft model. Otol Neurotol 24:839–842. https://doi.org/10.1097/00129492-200311000-00002
Cornips EM, Overvliet GM, Weber JW, Postma AA, Hoeberigs CM, Baldewijns MM, Vles JS (2010) The clinical spectrum of Blake’s pouch cyst: report of six illustrative cases. Childs Nerv Syst 26:1057–1064. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-010-1085-2
Cuadra-Blanco CD, Peces-Peña MD, Carvallo-de Moraes LO, Herrera-Lara ME, Mérida-Velasco JR (2013) Development of the platysma muscle and the superficial musculoaponeurotic system (human specimens at 8–17 weeks of development). Sci World J 2013:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/716962
Danforth BN (2001) Evolution of sociality in a primitively eusocial lineage of bees. Proc Natl Acad Sci 99:286–290. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.012387999
Dao AH, Netsky MG (1984) Human tails and pseudotails. Hum Pathol 15:449–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0046-8177(84)80079-9
Davson H (2012) in: the eye Pt Ia. Elsevier Science, Burlington, p 85
De Battista JC, Zimmer LA, Rodríguez-Vázquez JF, Froelich SC, Theodosopoulos PV, DePowell JJ, Keller JT (2011) Muller’s muscle, no longer vestigial in endoscopic surgery. World Neurosurgery 76:342–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2010.12.057
Devos L, Agnès F, Edouard J, Simon V, Legendre L, Khallouki NE, Barbachou S, Sohm F, Rétaux S (2019) Eye morphogenesis in the blind Mexican cavefish. Biol Open. https://doi.org/10.1101/698035
Dobson LJ, Barnewolt CE, Morash D, Connolly SA, Estroff JA (2013) Human fetal sacrococcygeal extension or ‘tail’ in the second trimester: prenatal diagnosis, associated findings, and clinical outcome. Prenat Diagn 33:134–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/pd.4021
Doyle WJ, Alper CM, Banks JM, Swarts JD (2003) Rate of nitrous oxide exchange across the middle ear mucosa in monkeys before and after blockage of the mastoid antrum. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 128:732–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0194-59980223309-4
Drouin G, Godin J-R, Page B (2011) The genetics of vitamin C loss in vertebrates. Curr Genom 12:371–378. https://doi.org/10.2174/138920211796429736
Ebbesen CL, Doron G, Lenschow C, Brecht M (2016) Vibrissa motor cortex activity suppresses contralateral whisking behavior. Nat Neurosci 20:82–89. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4437
Einstein M (2022) Sniffing out smell’s effects on human behavior. Nature 606:S18–S20. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-01632-z
Elsheikh E (2017) Superior parathyroid gland approach to the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Head Neck 39:1287–1290. https://doi.org/10.1002/hed.24690
Erdogdu E (2021) Rare case of human tail with tethered cord. J Clin Ultrasound 49:774–776. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcu.23015
Evans HE (1959) Hyoid muscle anomalies in the dog (canis familiaris). Anat Rec 133:145–162. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.1091330204
Fiore JM, Perry HD, Donnenfeld ED, Berger SA (2011) Pemphigus vulgaris: bilateral plica semilunaris involvement. Cornea 30:357–359. https://doi.org/10.1097/ico.0b013e3181eadba3
Friedman RN, McMillan RG, Kincaid CJ, Buschbacher MR (1999) Preliminary electrophysiological characterization of functionally vestigial muscles of the head: potential for command signaling. J Spinal Cord Med 22:167–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/10790268.1999.11719566
Friedman JW (2007) The prophylactic extraction of third molars: A public health hazard. Am J Public Health 97:1554–1559. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2006.100271
Friedrich RE, Viezens L, Grzyska U (2016) Pneumatization of the zygomatic process of temporal bone on computed tomograms. GMS Interdiscip Plast Reconstr Surg DGPW. https://doi.org/10.3205/iprs000095
Frisdal A, Trainor PA (2014) Development and evolution of the pharyngeal apparatus. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol 3:403–418. https://doi.org/10.1002/wdev.147
Galarza M (2002) Evidence of the subcommissural organ in humans and its association with hydrocephalus. Neurosurg Rev 25:205–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10143-002-0208-y
García-Castro JM, Reyes C, de Torres L (1975) Nictitating membrane in trisomy 18 syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 80:550–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9394(75)90228-7
Gaskill SJ, Marlin AE (1989) Neuroectodermal appendages: the human tail explained. Pediatr Neurosurg 15:95–99. https://doi.org/10.1159/000120450
George JS (2017) Infected branchial fistula mimicking as a branchial cyst: two case reports. J Otolaryngol-ENT Res. https://doi.org/10.15406/joentr.2017.08.00245
Gordin E, Lee TS, Ducic Y, Arnaoutakis D (2015) Facial nerve trauma: evaluation and considerations in management. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr 8:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1372522
Gore AV, Tomins KA, Iben J, Ma L, Castranova D, Davis A, Parkhurst A, Jeffery WR, Weinstein BM (2017) An epigenetic mechanism for cavefish eye degeneration. Nat Ecol Evol. https://doi.org/10.1101/199018
Graham A, Richardson J (2012) Developmental and evolutionary origins of the pharyngeal apparatus. EvoDevo 3:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/2041-9139-3-24
Greene HW, Cundall D (2000) Limbless tetrapods and snakes with legs. Science 287:1939–1941. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5460.1939
Guerra MM, González C, Caprile T, Jara M, Vío K, Muñoz RI, Rodríguez S, Rodríguez EM (2015) Understanding how the subcommissural organ and other periventricular secretory structures contribute via the cerebrospinal fluid to neurogenesis. Front Cell Neurosci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2015.00480
Haidarliu S, Bagdasarian K, Sardonicus S, Ahissar E (2020) Interaction between muscles and fascia in the mystacial pad of whisking rodents. Anat Rec 304:400–412. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.24409
Hall BK (1984) Developmental mechanisms underlying the formation of atavisms. Biol Rev 59:89–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.1984.tb00402.x
Hall BK (1995) Atavisms and atavistic mutations. Nat Genet 10:126–127. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng0695-126
Hamilton B (1929) Branchial cysts and other essays on surgical subjects in the facio cervical region. J R Nav Med Serv 15:224–225. https://doi.org/10.1136/jrnms-15-224
Henry BM, Vikse J, Sanna B, Taterra D, Gomulska M, Pękala PA, Tubbs RS, Tomaszewski KA (2018) Cervical rib prevalence and its association with thoracic outlet syndrome: a meta-analysis of 141 studies with surgical considerations. World Neurosurg. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2017.11.148
Hindi K, Alazzawi S, Raman R, Prepageran N, Rahmat K (2014) Pneumatization of mastoid air cells, temporal bone, ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses. Any correlation? Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 66:429–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12070-014-0745-z
Hoerter JE, Patel BC (2021) Anatomy, head and neck, Platysma [WWW Document]. StatPearls [Internet]. URL https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545294/ (Accessed 12.29.21).
Horsburgh A, Massoud TF (2012) The circumventricular organs of the brain: conspicuity on clinical 3T MRI and a review of functional anatomy. Surg Radiol Anat 35:343–349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00276-012-1048-2
Hwang K, Kim JY, Lim JH (2017) Anatomy of the platysma muscle. J Craniofac Surg 28:539–542. https://doi.org/10.1097/scs.0000000000003318
Iaria G, Robbins S, Petrides M (2008) Three-dimensional probabilistic maps of the occipital sulci of the human brain in standardized stereotaxic space. Neuroscience 151:174–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.09.050
Ibrahim H, Maher A, Fouad HF, Sabra TA (2021) A human tail arising from the anal mucocutaneous junction: a case report. Int J Surg Case Rep 86:106228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijscr.2021.106228
Ichimiya I, Kurono Y, Mogi G (1997) Immunological potential of the tympanic membrane. observation under normal and inflammatory conditions. Am J Otolaryngol 18:165–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0196-0709(97)90077-6
Jahnke V, Merker H-J (2000) Electron microscopic and functional aspects of the human vomeronasal organ. Am J Rhinol 14:63–68. https://doi.org/10.2500/105065800781602957
Johnson AK (2009) Circumventricular organs in neuroendocrine control. Encyclopedia of neuroscience. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1003–1006. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-008045046-9.01167-0
Jordan DR (1992) The orbital muscle of Müller. Arch Ophthalmol 110:1798. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.1992.01080240138047
Juliano AF, Ginat DT, Moonis G (2013) Imaging review of the temporal bone: part I. anatomy and inflammatory and neoplastic processes. Radiology 269:17–33. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.13120733
Jung H-S, Akita K, Kim J-Y (2004) Spacing patterns on tongue surface-gustatory papilla. Int J Dev Biol 48:157–161. https://doi.org/10.1387/ijdb.15272380
Kachlík D, Varga I, Báča V, Musil V (2020) Variant anatomy and its terminology. Medicina 56:713. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina56120713
Kaderi SA, Shinde P, Tilloo R, Chetan S, Dalal T, Vaghmare S, Bhesaniya D, Shah S, Rege S (2021) A never described variant of the cervical rib causing arterial thoracic outlet syndrome: world’s first case. Surg J. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1731654
Kayalioglu M, Shcherbatyy V, Seifi A, Liu Z-J (2007) Roles of intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles in feeding: electromyographic study in Pigs. Arch Oral Biol 52:786–796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2007.01.004
Khan S, Schoenen J, Ashina M (2013) Sphenopalatine ganglion neuromodulation in migraine: what is the rationale? Cephalalgia 34:382–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102413512032
Kishi S (2016) Vitreous anatomy and the vitreomacular correlation. Jpn J Ophthalmol 60:239–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10384-016-0447-z
Kiso H, Takahashi K, Mishima S, Murashima-Suginami A, Kakeno A, Yamazaki T, Asai K, Tokita Y, Uozumi R, Sugai M, Harada H, Huang B, MacDougall M, Bessho K (2019) Third dentition is the main cause of premolar supernumerary tooth formation. J Dent Res 98:968–974. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034519858282
Klinge PM, Cho D, Taylor HO, Morrison CS, Birgfeld CB, Sullivan SR (2020) Human tails: interdisciplinary treatment for dorsal cutaneous appendages and associated spectrum of spinal dysraphism. Interdiscip Neurosurg. 19:100632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inat.2019.100632
Kooij IA, Sahami S, Meijer SL, Buskens CJ, te Velde AA (2016) The immunology of the vermiform appendix: a review of the literature. Clin Exp Immunol 186:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/cei.12821
Krishan K, Kanchan T, Thakur S (2019) A study of morphological variations of the human ear for its applications in personal identification. Egypt J Forensic Sci. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-019-0111-0
Kumar D, Kapoor A (2012) Human tail. J Child Neurol 27:924–926. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073811428006
Kumar A, Kumar JC (2005) Atavistic orofacial response to manually dextrous activities. Med Hypotheses 65:196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2005.01.010
Lai C-S, Lai C-H, Wu Y-C, Chang K-P, Lee S-S, Lin S-D (2012) Medial epicanthoplasty based on anatomic variations. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 65:1182–1187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2011.12.038
Lange A, Müller GB (2017) Polydactyly in development, inheritance, and evolution. Q Rev Biol 92:1–38. https://doi.org/10.1086/690841
Lee JW, Funamura JL (2017) Third branchial cleft anomalies. Oper Tech Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 28:161–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otot.2017.05.014
Lei T, Cui L, Zhang Y-Z, Shi G-J, Peng P, Wang X-H, Xu D-C, Gao J-H (2010) Anatomy of the transversus nuchae muscle and its relationship with the superficial musculoaponeurotic system. Plastic Reconstr Surg 126:1058–1062. https://doi.org/10.1097/prs.0b013e3181e60551
Lieberman DE, Pearson OM, Mowbray KM (2000) Basicranial influence on overall cranial shape. J Hum Evol 38:291–315. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1999.0335
Lieberman DE, Krovitz GE, Yates FW, Devlin M, St. Claire M (2004) Effects of food processing on masticatory strain and craniofacial growth in a retrognathic face. J Human Evol. 46:655–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.03.005
Lin P-J, Chang Y-T, Tseng H-I, Lin J-Y, Huang Y-S (2007) Human tail and myelomeningocele. Pediatr Neurosurg 43:334–337. https://doi.org/10.1159/000103318
Lineweaver CH, Bussey KJ, Blackburn AC, Davies PC (2021) Cancer progression as a sequence of atavistic reversions. BioEssays 43:2000305. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.202000305
Liugan M, Zhang M, Cakmak YO (2018) Neuroprosthetics for auricular muscles: neural networks and clinical aspects. Front Neurol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2017.00752
Loh TY, Cohen PR (2016) Darwin’s tubercle: review of a unique congenital anomaly. Dermatol Ther 6:143–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13555-016-0109-6
Lu FL, Wang P-J, Teng R-J, Yau K-IT (1998) The human tail. Pediatr Neurol 19:230–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-8994(98)00046-0
Lykoudis EG, Seretis K, Spyropoulou G-AC (2011) A 6-year experience in flat helix correction with a simple procedure. Arch Facial Plastic Surg. https://doi.org/10.1001/archfacial.2011.31
Mao F, Liu C, Chase MH, Smith AK, Meng J (2020) Exploring ancestral phenotypes and evolutionary development of the mammalian middle ear based on early Cretaceous Jehol Mammals. Natl Sci Rev. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaa188
Marques de Moraes MV, Dionisio J, Tan U, Tudella E (2017) Palmar grasp reflex in human newborns. Pediatr Ther. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0665.1000309
McDonald MH, Hoffman MR, Gentry LR (2013) When is fluid in the mastoid cells a worrisome finding? J Am Board Family Med 26:218–220. https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2013.02.120190
Meldorf G (2009) Über das vorkommen von geschwülsten bei der Bevölkerung in Grönland. Nordiskt Medicinskt Arkiv 40:1–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1907.tb00530.x
Miguel SR, Ligabue-Braun R (2019) Hypothesis: compulsive hoarding as an atavism. Med Hypotheses 130:109273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2019.109273
Mims MM, Mady LJ, Baddour K, Snyderman CH, Stapleton AL (2020) Pediatric ectopic esthesioneuroblastoma: a case report and literature review. Otolaryngol Case Rep. 16:100193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xocr.2020.100193
Minchey SG, Menke DB (2019) Developmental evolution: downsizing wings in the flightless emu. Curr Biol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.09.038
Mittal MK, Malik A, Sureka B, Thukral BB (2012) Cystic masses of neck: a pictorial review. Indian J Radiol Imaging 22:334–343. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-3026.111488
Mohindra S (2006) The ‘human tail’ causing tethered cervical cord. Spinal Cord 45:583–585. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.sc.3101988
Montagna W, Machida H, Perkins EM (1966) The skin of primates. XXXIII. the skin of the Angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarensis). Am J Phys Anthropol 25:277–290. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330250307
Mukhopadhyay B, Shukla RM, Mukhopadhyay M, Mandal KC, Haldar P, Benare A (2012) Spectrum of human tails: a report of six cases. J Indian Assoc Pediatr Surg 17:23. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-9261.91082
Müller F, O’Rahilly R (2004) The primitive streak, the caudal eminence and related structures in staged human embryos. Cells Tissues Organs 177:2–20. https://doi.org/10.1159/000078423
Naldaiz-Gastesi N, Bahri OA, López de Munain A, McCullagh KJ, Izeta A (2018) Thepanniculus carnosusmuscle: an evolutionary enigma at the intersection of distinct research fields. J Anat 233:275–288. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12840
Odate T, Kawai M, Iio K, Funayama S, Futamata H, Takeda S (2012) Anatomy of the levator claviculae, with an overview and a literature survey. Anat Sci Int 87:203–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12565-012-0148-8
Oksche A (1993) The subcommissural organ an ependymal brain gland. Springer, Berlin
Olson EC, Yablokov AV (1967) Variability in mammals. J Mammal 48:500. https://doi.org/10.2307/1377806
Osanai H, Abe S-I, Rodríguez-Vázquez J, Verdugo-López S, Murakami G, Ohguro H (2011) Human orbital muscle: a new point of view from the fetal development of extraocular connective tissues. Investig Opthalmol vis Sci 52:1501. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.10-6013
Ogata S, Mine K, Tamatsu Y, Shimada K (2002) Morphological study of the human chondroglossus muscle in Japanese. Ann Anat 184:493–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0940-9602(02)80087-5
Panchbhai AS, Choudhary MS (2012) Branchial cleft cyst at an unusual location: a rare case with a brief review. Dentomaxillofac Radiol 41:696–702. https://doi.org/10.1259/dmfr/59515421
Párraga RG, Possatti LL, Alves RV, Ribas GC, Türe U, de Oliveira E (2016) Microsurgical anatomy and internal architecture of the brainstem in 3D images: surgical considerations. J Neurosurg 124:1377–1395. https://doi.org/10.3171/2015.4.jns132778
Patel AB, Hinni ML (2011) The fourth branchial complex anomaly: a rare clinical entity. Case Rep Otolaryngol 2011:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/958652
Patil MS, Patil SB, Acharya AB (2008) Palatine rugae and their significance in clinical dentistry. J Am Dent Assoc 139:1471–1478. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2008.0072
Perez-Fegares JM, Jimenez AJ, Rodriguez EM (2001) Subcommissural organ, cerebrospinal fluid circulation, and hydrocephalus. Microsc Res Tech 52:591–607. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0029(20010301)52:5%3c591::aid-jemt1043%3e3.0.co;2-7
Peterkova R, Peterka M, Lesot H (2006) The develo** mouse dentition. Ann New York Acad Sci 1010:453–466. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1299.083
Pinhasi R, Eshed V, von Cramon-Taubadel N (2015) Incongruity between affinity patterns based on mandibular and lower dental dimensions following the transition to agriculture in the Near East, Anatolia and Europe. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117301
Pollock AN (2014) Branchial cleft cysts. Pediatr Radiol. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199755325.003.0109
Post A, Norton ME, Monteagudo A (2020) Blake’s pouch cyst. Am J Obstetr Gynecol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2020.08.187
Rahemtullah A, Szyfelbein K, Zembowicz A (2005) Glomus coccygeum. Am J Dermatopathol 27:497–499. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.dad.0000149079.70872.a7
Raikow RJ, Borecky SR, Berman SL (1979) The evolutionary re-establishment of a lost ancestral muscle in the bowerbird assemblage. The Condor 81:203. https://doi.org/10.2307/1367290
Rea P (2016) Essential clinically applied anatomy of the peripheral nervous system in the head and neck. Academic Preess, New York. https://doi.org/10.1016/c2014-0-05021-6
Reddy A, Valika T, Maddalozzo J (2020) Definitive Surgical Management for second branchial cleft fistula: A case series. J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40463-020-00453-2
Remington LA (2014) Clinical anatomy of the visual system. Elsevier Health Sciences, Saint Louis
Robert W, Funnell J, Laszlo CA (1982) A critical review of experimental observations on ear-drum structure and function. ORL 44:181–205. https://doi.org/10.1159/000275593
Robinson R (1970) A review of genetic linkage in the Guinea-pig. Genet Sel Evol 2:241. https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9686-2-3-241
Robinson AJ, Goldstein R (2007) The cisterna magna septa. J Ultrasound Med 26:83–95. https://doi.org/10.7863/jum.2007.26.1.83
Rodríguez EM, Jara P, Richter H, Montecinos H, Flández B, Wiegand R, Oksche A (1993) Evidence for the release of CSF-soluble secretory material from the subcommissural organ, with particular reference to the situation in the human. The subcommissural organ. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-78013-4_14
Rodríguez-Vázquez JF, Mérida-Velasco JR, Arráez-Aybar LA, Jiménez-Collado J (1998) Anatomic relationships of the orbital muscle of Müller in human fetuses. Surg Radiol Anat 20:341–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01630617
Rosenheimer JL, Loewy J, Lozanoff S (2000) Levator claviculae muscle discovered during physical examination for cervical lymphadenopathy. Clin Anat 13:298–301. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2353(2000)13:4%3c298::aid-ca11%3e3.0.co;2-y
Roy A, Deshmukh PT, Patil C (2015) Pneumatization pattern in squamousal type of chronic otitis media. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 67:375–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12070-015-0872-1
Ruah CB, Schachern PA, Zelterman D, Paparella MM, Yoon TH (1991) Age-related morphologic changes in the human tympanic membrane. A light and electron microscopic study. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 117:627–634. https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.1991.01870180063013
Rubinstein D, Escott EJ, Henrick LL (1999) The prevalence and CT appearance of the Levator claviculae muscle: a normal variant not to be mistaken for an abnormal. Am J Neuroradiol 20(4):583–586
Rueda J, Gutierrez J, Facio J, Alarcón A, Armijo E, Cisneros D, Hernandez S, Muñoz G (2022) Human tail in a newborn. J Pediatr Surg Case Rep 76:102098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsc.2021.102098
Ruiz A (1986) An anthropometric study of the ear in an adult population. Int J Anthropol 1:135–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02447350
Ryu N-G, Kim J (2016) How to avoid facial nerve injury in mastoidectomy? J Audiol Otol 20:68–72. https://doi.org/10.7874/jao.2016.20.2.68
Sahu S, Kumar A, Ramakrishnan TS (2011) Branchial fistula: An imaging perspective. Med J Armed Forces India 67:262–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-1237(11)60056-7
Sakamoto Y (2016) Configuration of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue and their spatial interrelationships. Surg Radiol Anat 39:497–506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00276-016-1777-8
Saker E, Henry BM, Tomaszewski KA, Loukas M, Iwanaga J, Oskouian RJ, Tubbs RS (2017) The filum Terminale Internum and externum: a comprehensive review. J Clin Neurosci 40:6–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2016.12.020
San T, Gürkan E, Erdoğan B (2014) An unusual anatomical variation of the superior turbinate: a case report. J Med Case Rep. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1947-8-182
Schmalfuß L, Rupp R, Tuga MR, Kogut A, Hewitt M, Meincke J, Klinker F, Duttenhoefer W, Eck U, Mikut R, Reischl M, Liebetanz D (2015) Steer by ear: myoelectric auricular control of powered wheelchairs for individuals with spinal cord injury. Restor Neurol Neurosci 34:79–95. https://doi.org/10.3233/rnn-150579
Schmidt, H.M., 1982. Transversus nuchae muscle: Two observations of hitherto unknown deviations of its nerve supply (author's transl) [WWW Document]. Anatomischer Anzeiger. URL https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7091702 (Accessed 12.29.21).
Senter P, Moch JG (2015) A critical survey of vestigial structures in the postcranial skeletons of extant mammals. PeerJ. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1439
Shields LBE, Mutchnick IS, Daniels MW, Peppas DS, Rosenberg E (2021) Risk of occult spinal dysraphism based on lumbosacral cutaneous manifestations. SAGE Open Medicine 9:205031212110371. https://doi.org/10.1177/20503121211037172
Shinn JR, Nwabueze NN, Du L, Patel PN, Motamedi KK, Norton C, Ries WR, Stephan SJ (2019) Treatment patterns and outcomes in botulinum therapy for patients with facial synkinesis. JAMA Facial Plastic Surgery 21:244–251. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamafacial.2018.1962
Singh S, Basu S (2020) The human lacrimal gland: historical perspectives, current understanding, and recent advances. Curr Eye Res 45:1188–1198. https://doi.org/10.1080/02713683.2020.1774065
Singh P, Purkait R (2009) Observations of external ear—an Indian study. Homo 60:461–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchb.2009.08.002
Singh DK, Kumar B, Sinha VD, Bagaria HR (2008) The human tail: rare lesion with occult spinal dysraphism—a case report. J Pediatr Surg. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2008.04.030
Sire J-Y, Delgado SC, Girondot M (2008) Hen’s teeth with enamel cap: from dream to impossibility. BMC Evol Biol 8:246. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-8-246
Smith HF, Wright W (2018) Vestigial organ. Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior. Springer, Berlin
Smith TD, Siegel MI, Burrows AM, Mooney MP, Burdi AR, Fabrizio PA, Clemente FR (1998) Searching for the vomeronasal organ of adult humans: preliminary findings on location, structure, and size. Microsc Res Tech 41:483–491. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0029(19980615)41:6%3c483::aid-jemt4%3e3.0.co;2-o
Smith HF, Parker W, Kotzé SH, Laurin M (2017) Morphological evolution of the mammalian cecum and cecal appendix. CR Palevol 16:39–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2016.06.001
Smith, T.D., Bhatnagar, K.P., 2002. The human vomeronasal organ. part II: Prenatal development [WWW Document]. Wiley Online Library. URL https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19730421.x (Accessed 12.28.21).
Soames JV (1973) A review of the histology of the tongue in the region of the foramen cecum. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 36:220–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(73)90241-7
Spiegelmann R, Schinder E, Mintz M, Blakstein A (1985) The human tail: a benign stigma. J Neurosurg 63:461–462. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1985.63.3.0461
Spinney L (2008) Remnants of evolution. New Scientist 198:42–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(08)61231-2
Sridevi K, Mahesh N, Krishnaveni B, Deepika ADN, Thejasri V, Leninson BHD (2019) Evaluation of styloid process and its anatomical variations: a digital panoramic study with systematic review. J Int Soc Prevent Communit Dent 9:256. https://doi.org/10.4103/jispcd.jispcd_8_19
Stenfors LE, Salén B, Winblad B (1979) The role of the pars flaccida in the mechanics of the middle ear. Acta Otolaryngol 88:395–400. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016487909137184
Stiassny MLJ (1991) Atavisms, phylogenetic character reversals, and the origin of evolutionary novelties. Netherlands J Zool 42:260–276. https://doi.org/10.1163/156854291x00324
Stibbe EP (1928) A comparative study of the nictitating membrane of birds and mammals. J Anat 62:159–176
Stone, J., Stone, R., 2011. Atlas of Skeletal Muscles [WWW Document]. McGraw Hill. URL https://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/atlas-skeletal-muscles-stone-stone/M9780073378169.html (Accessed 12.29.21).
Stoyanov GS, Matev BK, Valchanov P, Sapundzhiev N, Young JR (2018a) The human vomeronasal (Jacobson’s) organ: a short review of current conceptions, with an English translation of Potiquet’s original text. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.2643
Stoyanov GS, Matev BK, Valchanov P et al (2018b) The human vomeronasal (Jacobson’s) organ: a short review of current conceptions, with an English translation of Potiquet’s original text. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.2643
Straus C, Vasilakos K, Wilson RJ, Oshima T, Zelter M, Derenne J-P, Similowski T, Whitelaw WA (2003) A phylogenetic hypothesis for the origin of hiccough. BioEssays 25:182–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.10224
Strauss DJ, Corona-Strauss FI, Schroeer A, Flotho P, Hannemann R, Hackley SA (2020) Vestigial auriculomotor activity indicates the direction of auditory attention in humans. Elife. https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.54536
Szymanski, A., 2021. Anatomy, head and neck, ear tympanic membrane [WWW Document]. StatPearls [Internet]. URL https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448117/ (Accessed 2.4.22).
Tamatsu Y, Tsukahara K, Hotta M, Shimada K (2007) Vestiges of vibrissal capsular muscles exist in the human upper lip. Clin Anat 20:628–631. https://doi.org/10.1002/ca.20497
Theobald, D.L., 1994. 29+ evidences for macroevolution [WWW Document]. The scientific case for common descent. URL http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/ (Accessed 2.3.22).
Thewissen JG, Hieronymus TL, George JC, Suydam R, Stimmelmayr R, McBurney D (2017) Evolutionary aspects of the development of teeth and baleen in the bowhead whale. J Anat 230:549–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12579
Toerien MJ, Gous AE (1978) The orbital muscle of Müller. S Afr Med J 53:139–141
Tojima S, Yamada S (2020) Classification of the “human tail”: correlation between position, associated anomalies, and causes. Clin Anat 33:929–942. https://doi.org/10.1002/ca.23609
Tojima S, Makishima H, Takakuwa T, Yamada S (2017) Tail reduction process during human embryonic development. Mech Dev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mod.2017.04.050
Tomić N, Meyer-Rochow VB (2011) Atavisms: medical, genetic, and evolutionary implications. Perspect Biol Med 54:332–353. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2011.0034
Torimitsu S, Makino Y, Saitoh H, Ishii N, Yajima D, Inokuchi G, Motomura A, Chiba F, Yamaguchi R, Hoshioka Y, Iwase H (2017) Determination of sex on the basis of hyoid bone measurements in a Japanese population using multidetector computed tomography. Int J Legal Med 132:907–914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-017-1728-x
Torkamani N, Jones L, Rufaut NW, Sinclair RD (2014) Beyond goosebumps: does the arrector pili muscle have a role in hair loss? Int J Trichol 6:88. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-7753.139077
Trotier D (2011) Vomeronasal organ and human pheromones. Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis 128:184–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anorl.2010.11.008
Troutwine BR, Gontarz P, Konjikusic MJ, Minowa R, Monstad-Rios A, Sepich DS, Kwon RY, Solnica-Krezel L, Gray RS (2020) The Reissner fiber is highly dynamic in vivo and controls morphogenesis of the spine. Curr Biol 30:2353-2362.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.015
Tubbs RS, Malefant J, Loukas M, Jerry Oakes W, Oskouian RJ, Fries FN (2016a) Enigmatic human tails: a review of their history, embryology, classification, and clinical manifestations. Clin Anat 29:430–438. https://doi.org/10.1002/ca.22712
Tubbs RS, Shoja MM, Loukas M (2016b) In Bergman’s comprehensive encyclopedia of human anatomic variation. Wiley Blackwell, Hoboken, p 222
Turner CG (1987) Late pleistocene and holocene population history of East Asia based on dental variation. Am J Phys Anthropol 73:305–321. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330730304
Vasileiadis I, Kapetanakis S, Petousis A, Stavrianaki A, Fiska A, Karakostas E (2012) Internal laryngopyocele as a cause of acute airway obstruction: an extremely rare case and review of the literature. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital 32(1):58–62
Vasuki AKM (2016) Fate and development of human vomeronasal organ—a microscopic fetal study. J Clin Diagn RES. https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2016/15930.7373
Verhaeghe J, Gheysen R, Enzlin P (2013) Pheromones and their effect on women’s mood and sexuality. Facts, Views, and Vision ObGyn 5:189–195
Verhulst J (1996) Atavisms in homo sapiens: a bolkian heterodoxy revisited. Acta Biotheor 44:59–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00046435
Veugen CC, Dikkers FG, Bakker BS (2019) The developmental origin of the Auricula revisited. Laryngoscope 130:2467–2474. https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.28456
Vokuda H, Heralgi M, Thallangady A, Venkatachalam K (2017) Persistent unilateral nictitating membrane in a 9-year-old girl: a rare case report. Indian J Ophthalmol 65:253. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijo.ijo_436_15
von Cramon-Taubadel N (2011) Global human mandibular variation reflects differences in agricultural and hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108:19546–19551. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1113050108
Wahl L, Lee R, Olewnik Ł, Iwanaga J, Georgiev GP, Ravi KS, Dumont AS, Tubbs RS (2022) Atavistic muscles in human anatomy: evolutionary origins and clinical implications. Anat Histol Embryol 51:321–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/ahe.12796
Walia I, Arora HS, Barker EA, Delgado RM 3rd, Frazier OH (2010) Snake heart: a case of atavism in a human being. Tex Heart Inst J 37(6):687–690
Watanabe J, Field DJ, Matsuoka H (2020) Wing musculature reconstruction in extinct flightless auks (**uinus and Mancalla) reveals incomplete convergence with penguins (Spheniscidae) due to differing ancestral states. Integr Organ Biol. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.07.22.215707
Watanabe K, Saga T, Iwanaga J, Tabira Y, Yamaki KI (2017) An anatomical study of the transversus nuchae muscle: Application to better understanding occipital neuralgia. Clin Anat 30:32–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/ca.22797
Werdelin L (1987) Supernumerary teeth in Lynx lynx and the irreversibility of evolution. J Zool 211:259–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb01532.x
West-Eberhard MJ (2013) In: Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford University Press, New York, p 235
Wiedersheim R (1895) The structure of man. MacMillan, London
Wilkinson CC, Boylan AJ (2016) Proposed caudal appendage classification system; spinal cord tethering associated with sacrococcygeal eversion. Childs Nerv Syst 33:69–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-016-3208-x
Wood J (1870) Vii. on a group of varieties of the muscles of the human neck, shoulder, and chest, with their transitional forms and homologies in the mammalia. Philos Trans R Soc Lond 160:83–116. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1870.0007
Woon JTK, Stringer MD (2011) Clinical anatomy of the coccyx: a systematic review. Clin Anat 25:158–167. https://doi.org/10.1002/ca.21216
Wright CG (1997) Development of the human external ear. J Am Acad Audiol 8(6):379–382
Wu W, Kamat D (2020) A review of benign congenital anomalies. Pediatr Ann. https://doi.org/10.3928/19382359-20200121-03
Wyatt TD (2020) Reproducible research into human chemical communication by cues and pheromones: learning from psychology’s renaissance. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 375:20190262. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0262
**a B, Zhang W, Wudzinska A, Huang E, Brosh R, Pour M, Miller A, Dasen JS, Maurano MT, Kim SY, Boeke JD, Yanai I (2021) The genetic basis of tail-loss evolution in humans and apes. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.09.14.460388
Yuhas, D., 2014. Are human pheromones real? Scientists are still unraveling nature’s secret olfactory signals. Scientific American, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-human-pheromones-real/
Zaccagna F, Brown FS, Allinson KSJ, Devadass A, Kapadia A, Massoud TF, Matys T (2022) In and around the pineal gland: a neuroimaging review. Clin Radiol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crad.2021.09.020
Zanni G, Opitz JM (2013) Annals of morphology. atavisms: phylogenetic lazarus? Am J Med Genet A 161:2822–2835. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.a.36234
Zetu L, Wang H-L (2005) Management of inter-dental/inter-implant Papilla. J Clin Periodontol 32:831–839. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-051x.2005.00748.x
Zhang M, Zhou R, Gao W (2020) Decreased smooth muscle component in Müller’s muscle may induce or aggravate blepharoptosis in Elderly asians. Med Hypotheses 145:110341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110341
Zuckerman S (1935) Supernumerary nipples in monkeys. J Mammal 16:229–230. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/16.3.229-a
Funding
This research did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
TFM: had the idea for the article. All authors performed the literature search, critical analysis of the literature, and drafted and critically revised the work.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Ethical approval
This is an observational study (a review article). No ethical approval is required.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dhawan, S.S., Yedavalli, V. & Massoud, T.F. Atavistic and vestigial anatomical structures in the head, neck, and spine: an overview. Anat Sci Int 98, 370–390 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12565-022-00701-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12565-022-00701-7