SpringerLink
Log in

Optimization of Extraction Process and Estimation of Flavonoids from Fenugreek Using Green Extracting Deep Eutectic Solvents Coupled with Ultrasonication

  • RESEARCH
  • Published:
Food and Bioprocess Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The extraction of flavonoids from fenugreek seeds was investigated using ultrasound-assisted deep eutectic solvents (DES). The selection of the most effective DES was based on the analysis of the bioactive profile, antioxidant potential, and antimicrobial properties of fenugreek extracts, taking into consideration the physicochemical properties of the DES. The results suggested that all six DES performed better than conventional solvent (methanol), and among DES, choline chloride-malic acid (CCMA), choline chloride-citric acid (CCCA), and choline chloride-1,4-butanediol (CCBU) performed better under set conditions and were further selected for optimization of processing conditions, including molar ratios, water required for dilution of DES, sonication power, sonication time, and sonication temperature. Identification and quantification of the flavonoids present in optimized-DES extracts were carried out using HPLC–DAD. The results revealed that prominent individual flavonoid compounds were kaempferol (10.65 ± 0.49), rutin (18.33 ± 0.84), and quercetin (10.82 ± 0.59) mg/gm d.w., with recovery percentages of 78.83%, 92.69%, and 87.18%, respectively. After analyzing the results of HPLC, we can conclude that CCMA (DES) is a safer, greener, and highly efficient extraction system for maximum and sustainable extraction of flavonoid compounds from fenugreek seeds.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Germany)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

All the data related to this study has been presented in the article.

References

  • Ahmad, R., Alqathama, A., Aldholmi, M., Riaz, M., Eldin, S. M., Mahtab Alam, M., & Abdelmohsen, S. A. M. (2023). Ultrasonic-assisted extraction of fenugreek flavonoids and its geographical-based comparative evaluation using green UHPLC-DAD analysis. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 95, 106382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2023.106382

  • Airouyuwa, J. O., Mostafa, H., Riaz, A., Stathopoulos, C., & Maqsood, S. (2023). Natural deep eutectic solvents and microwave-assisted green extraction for efficient recovery of bioactive compounds from by-products of date fruit (Phoenix dactylifera L.) processing: Modeling, optimization, and phenolic characterization. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 16(4), 824–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02960-8

  • Alam, M. A., Muhammad, G., Khan, M. N., Mofijur, M., Lv, Y., **ong, W., & Xu, J. (2021). Choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvents as green extractants for the isolation of phenolic compounds from biomass. Journal of Cleaner Production, 309, 127445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127445

  • Alexandre, E. M. C., Araújo, P., Duarte, M. F., de Freitas, V., Pintado, M., & Saraiva, J. A. (2017). Experimental design, modeling, and optimization of high-pressure-assisted extraction of bioactive compounds from pomegranate peel. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 10(5), 886–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-017-1867-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Juhaimi, F., Adiamo, O. Q., Ghafoor, K., & Babiker, E. E. (2016). Optimization of ultrasonic-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) seed. CyTA - Journal of Food, 14(3), 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2015.1110202

  • Al-Maqtari, Q. A., Mahdi, A. A., Al-Ansi, W., Mohammed, J. K., Wei, M., & Yao, W. (2021). Evaluation of bioactive compounds and antibacterial activity of Pulicaria jaubertii extract obtained by supercritical and conventional methods. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 15(1), 449–456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020-00652-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arya, P., & Kumar, P. (2021). Comparison of ultrasound and microwave assisted extraction of diosgenin from Trigonella foenum graceum seed. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 74, 105572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105572

  • Ashraf, W., Shehzad, A., Sharif, H. R., Aadil, R. M., Rafiq Khan, M., & Zhang, L. (2020). Influence of selected hydrocolloids on the rheological, functional, and textural properties of wheat-pumpkin flour bread. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 44(10), e14777. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14777

  • Ashraf, W., Latif, A., Lianfu, Z., Jian, Z., Chenqiang, W., Rehman, A., Hussain, A., Siddiquy, M., & Karim, A. (2022). Technological advancement in the processing of lycopene: A review. Food Reviews International, 38(5), 857–883. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2020.1749653

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baba, W. N., Tabasum, Q., Muzzaffar, S., Masoodi, F. A., Wani, I., Ganie, S. A., & Bhat, M. M. (2018). Some nutraceutical properties of fenugreek seeds and shoots (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) from the high Himalayan region. Food Bioscience, 23, 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2018.02.009

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Basaiahgari, A., Panda, S., & Gardas, R. L. (2018). Effect of ethylene, diethylene, and triethylene glycols and glycerol on the physicochemical properties and phase behavior of benzyltrimethyl and benzyltributylammonium chloride based deep eutectic solvents at 283.15–343.15 K. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data, 63(7), 2613–2627. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jced.8b00213

  • Bimakr, M., Rahman, R. A., Ganjloo, A., Taip, F. S., Salleh, L. M., & Sarker, M. Z. I. (2012). Optimization of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of bioactive flavonoid compounds from spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) leaves by using response surface methodology. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 5(3), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-010-0504-4

  • Boateng, I. D. (2023). Evaluating the status quo of deep eutectic solvent in food chemistry. Potentials and limitations. Food Chemistry, 406, 135079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.135079

  • Chaubey, P. S., Somani, G., Kanchan, D., Sathaye, S., Varakumar, S., & Singhal, R. S. (2018). Evaluation of debittered and germinated fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum L.) seed flour on the chemical characteristics, biological activities, and sensory profile of fortified bread. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 42(1), e13395. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13395

  • Chong, K. Y., Stefanova, R., Zhang, J., & Brooks, M.S.-L. (2020). Extraction of bioactive compounds from haskap leaves (Lonicera caerulea) using salt/ethanol aqueous two-phase flotation. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(12), 2131–2144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02553-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Das, S. (2013). Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of total flavonoids and antioxidant properties from Trigonella foenum-graecum seeds with response surface methodology. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 4(11), 4308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dastan, S., Turker, I., & Isleroglu, H. (2022). Enhanced recovery of bioactive compounds from Trigonella-foenum graecum seeds by ultrasonic-assisted extraction. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 16(2), 1073–1086. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-021-01240-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Della Posta, S., Gallo, V., Gentili, A., & Fanali, C. (2022). Strategies for the recovery of bioactive molecules from deep eutectic solvents extracts. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 157, 116798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2022.116798

  • Florindo, C., Oliveira, M. M., Branco, L. C., & Marrucho, I. M. (2017). Carbohydrates-based deep eutectic solvents: Thermophysical properties and rice straw dissolution. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 247, 441–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2017.09.026

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gajbar, T. D., Satapute, P., & Jogaiah, S. (2022). Influence of gamma irradiation on the isolation of bioactive 4-hydroxyisoluceine compound from fenugreek and its enhanced antifungal properties. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology, 118, 101800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmpp.2022.101800

  • Gao, M.-Z., Cui, Q., Wang, L.-T., Meng, Y., Yu, L., Li, Y.-Y., & Fu, Y.-J. (2020). A green and integrated strategy for enhanced phenolic compounds extraction from mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaves by deep eutectic solvent. Microchemical Journal, 154, 104598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2020.104598

  • García, A., Rodríguez-Juan, E., Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, G., Rios, J. J., & Fernández-Bolaños, J. (2016). Extraction of phenolic compounds from virgin olive oil by deep eutectic solvents (DESs). Food Chemistry, 197, 554–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.10.131

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gil-Martín, E., Forbes-Hernández, T., Romero, A., Cianciosi, D., Giampieri, F., & Battino, M. (2022). Influence of the extraction method on the recovery of bioactive phenolic compounds from food industry by-products. Food Chemistry, 378, 131918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131918

  • Hansen, B. B., Spittle, S., Chen, B., Poe, D., Zhang, Y., Klein, J. M., Horton, A., Adhikari, L., Zelovich, T., Doherty, B. W., Gurkan, B., Maginn, E. J., Ragauskas, A., Dadmun, M., Zawodzinski, T. A., Baker, G. A., Tuckerman, M. E., Savinell, R. F., & Sangoro, J. R. (2021). Deep eutectic solvents: A review of fundamentals and applications. Chemical Reviews, 121(3), 1232–1285. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isleroglu, H., & Turker, I. (2022). Ultrasonic-assisted extraction and thermal stability of phytochemicals from fenugreek leaves. Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 30, 100390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmap.2022.100390

  • Ivanović, M., Albreht, A., Krajnc, P., Vovk, I., & Razboršek, M. I. (2021). Sustainable ultrasound-assisted extraction of valuable phenolics from inflorescences of Helichrysum arenarium L. using natural deep eutectic solvents. Industrial Crops and Products, 160, 113102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.113102

  • Jiang, L., Belwal, T., Huang, H., Ge, Z., Limwachiranon, J., Zhao, Y., Li, L., Ren, G., & Luo, Z. (2019). Extraction and characterization of phenolic compounds from bamboo shoot shell under optimized ultrasonic-assisted conditions: A potential source of nutraceutical compounds. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12(10), 1741–1755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-019-02321-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kia, A. G., Ganjloo, A., & Bimakr, M. (2018). A short extraction time of polysaccharides from fenugreek (Trigonella foencem graecum) seed using continuous ultrasound acoustic cavitation: Process optimization, characterization and biological activities. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 11(12), 2204–2216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2178-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumari, B., Tiwari, B. K., Hossain, M. B., Brunton, N. P., & Rai, D. K. (2018). Recent advances on application of ultrasound and pulsed electric field technologies in the extraction of bioactives from agro-industrial by-products. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 11(2), 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-017-1961-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lei, J., Wang, Y., Li, W., Fu, S., Zhou, J., Lu, D., Wang, C., Sheng, X., Zhang, M., **ao, S., Sun, C., & Wang, G. (2022). Natural green deep eutectic solvents-based eco-friendly and efficient extraction of flavonoids from Selaginella moellendorffii: Process optimization, composition identification and biological activity. Separation and Purification Technology, 283, 120203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2021.120203

  • Ling, J. K. U., Sam, J. H., Jeevanandam, J., Chan, Y. S., & Nandong, J. (2022). Thermal degradation of antioxidant compounds: Effects of parameters, thermal degradation kinetics, and formulation strategies. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15(9), 1919–1935. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02797-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, W., & Chen, H. (2022). Application of deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as trace level drug extractants and drug solubility enhancers: State-of-the-art, prospects and challenges. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 349, 118105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118105

  • Mansur, A. R., Song, N.-E., Jang, H. W., Lim, T.-G., Yoo, M., & Nam, T. G. (2019). Optimizing the ultrasound-assisted deep eutectic solvent extraction of flavonoids in common buckwheat sprouts. Food Chemistry, 293, 438–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.05.003

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melgar-Lalanne, G., Hernández-Álvarez, A. J., Jiménez-Fernández, M., & Azuara, E. (2017). Oleoresins from Capsicum spp.: Extraction methods and bioactivity. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 10(1), 51–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-016-1793-z

  • Moro, K. I. B., Bender, A. B. B., da Silva, L. P., & Penna, N. G. (2021). Green extraction methods and microencapsulation technologies of phenolic compounds from grape pomace: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 14(8), 1407–1431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-021-02665-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolau-Lapeña, I., Lafarga, T., Viñas, I., Abadias, M., Bobo, G., & Aguiló-Aguayo, I. (2019). Ultrasound processing alone or in combination with other chemical or physical treatments as a safety and quality preservation strategy of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12(9), 1452–1471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-019-02313-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niknam, R., Mousavi, M., & Kiani, H. (2020). New studies on the galactomannan extracted from Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek) seed: Effect of subsequent use of ultrasound and microwave on the physicochemical and rheological properties. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 13(5), 882–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-020-02437-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peanparkdee, M., Yamauchi, R., & Iwamoto, S. (2018). Characterization of antioxidants extracted from thai riceberry bran using ultrasonic-assisted and conventional solvent extraction methods. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 11(4), 713–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-017-2047-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rico, X., Gullón, B., & Yáñez, R. (2022). A comparative assessment on the recovery of pectin and phenolic fractions from aqueous and DES extracts obtained from melon peels. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15(6), 1406–1421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02823-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Routray, W., & Orsat, V. (2012). Microwave-assisted extraction of flavonoids: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 5(2), 409–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-011-0573-z

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruwali, P., Pandey, N., **dal, K., & Singh, R. V. (2022). Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum): Nutraceutical values, phytochemical, ethnomedicinal and pharmacological overview. South African Journal of Botany. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.04.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sas, O. G., Ivaniš, G. R., Kijevčanin, M. L., González, B., Domínguez, A., & Radović, I. R. (2021). High pressure densities and derived thermodynamic properties of deep eutectic solvents with menthol and saturated fatty acids. The Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics, 162, 106578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jct.2021.106578

  • Sui, M., Feng, S., Liu, G., Chen, B., Li, Z., & Shao, P. (2023). Deep eutectic solvent on extraction of flavonoid glycosides from Dendrobium officinale and rapid identification with UPLC-triple-TOF/MS. Food Chemistry, 401, 134054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134054

  • Wang, L., Li, Z., Huang, J., Liu, D., Lefebvre, C., & Fan, J. (2022a). Effect of ultrasound-assisted extraction of polyphenols from apple peels in water CO2 systems. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 15(5), 1157–1167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02809-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y.-Y., Peng, C., Zhang, Y., Wang, Z.-R., Chen, Y.-M., Dong, J.-F., **ao, M.-L., Li, D.-L., Li, W., Zou, Q.-J., Zhang, K., & Wei, P. (2022b). Optimization, identification and bioactivity of flavonoids extracted from Moringa oleifera leaves by deep eutectic solvent. Food Bioscience, 47, 101687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101687

  • Wani, S. A., & Kumar, P. (2018). Fenugreek: A review on its nutraceutical properties and utilization in various food products. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 17(2), 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2016.01.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, Z., Qi, X., Li, T., Luo, M., Wang, W., Zu, Y., & Fu, Y. (2015). Application of natural deep eutectic solvents for extraction and determination of phenolics in Cajanus cajan leaves by ultra performance liquid chromatography. Separation and Purification Technology, 149, 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2015.05.015

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • **ao, Y., Yang, C., Xu, H., Zhang, J., & Zhang, L. (2021). Study on the change of flavonoid glycosides to aglycones during the process of steamed bread containing tartary buckwheat flour and antioxidant, α-glucosidase inhibitory activities evaluation in vitro. LWT, 145, 111527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111527

  • **ng, C., Cui, W.-Q., Zhang, Y., Zou, X.-S., Hao, J.-Y., Zheng, S.-D., Wang, T.-T., Wang, X.-Z., Wu, T., Liu, Y.-Y., Chen, X.-Y., Yuan, S.-G., Zhang, Z.-Y., & Li, Y.-H. (2022). Ultrasound-assisted deep eutectic solvents extraction of glabridin and isoliquiritigenin from Glycyrrhiza glabra: Optimization, extraction mechanism and in vitro bioactivities. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 83, 105946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2022.105946

  • Yang, J., Zhang, Z., Wu, Q., Ding, X., Yin, C., Yang, E., Sun, D., Wang, W., Yang, Y., & Guo, F. (2022). Multiple responses optimization of antioxidative components extracted from Fenugreek seeds using response surface methodology to identify their chemical compositions. Food Science & Nutrition, 10(10), 3475–3484. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2949

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yusoff, I. M., Mat Taher, Z., Rahmat, Z., & Chua, L. S. (2022). A review of ultrasound-assisted extraction for plant bioactive compounds: Phenolics, flavonoids, thymols, saponins and proteins. Food Research International, 157, 111268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111268

  • Zainal-Abidin, M. H., Hayyan, M., Hayyan, A., & Jayakumar, N. S. (2017). New horizons in the extraction of bioactive compounds using deep eutectic solvents: A review. Analytica Chimica Acta, 979, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2017.05.012

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, B., Yuan, Y., **ang, J., **, W., Johnson, J. B., Li, Z., Wang, C., & Luo, D. (2022). Green extraction of phenolic compounds from foxtail millet bran by ultrasonic-assisted deep eutectic solvent extraction: Optimization, comparison and bioactivities. LWT, 154, 112740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112740

Download references

Funding

This project was supported by the grants from Thirteen Five National Key Research and Development Program of China (2018YFD0400902), Science and Technology Project of **njiang Production and Construction Corps (2019DB008), and Changji Science and Technology Project (2019G02).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214122, China

    Waqas Ashraf, Arif Hussain, Aiman Karim, Mahbuba Siddiquy & Zhang Lianfu

  2. School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, 5 Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, 212013, China

    Abdur Rehman

  3. Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan

    Hafiz Rizwan Sharif

  4. The Food College of Shihezi University, Shihezi, 832003, **njiang, China

    Zhang Lianfu

Authors
  1. Waqas Ashraf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Abdur Rehman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Arif Hussain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Aiman Karim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Hafiz Rizwan Sharif
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Mahbuba Siddiquy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Zhang Lianfu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Waqas Ashraf: conceptualization, experimentation and data analysis, and writing and editing first draft. Zhang Lianfu: conceptualization, funding acquisition, supervision, and reviewing and editing. Abdur Rehman: data interpretation, proof reading the original draft, and editing. Arif Hussain: methodology and formal analysis. Aiman Karim: methodology and formal analysis. Hafiz Rizwan Sharif: proof reading the original draft and editing. Mahbuba Siddique: data curation and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zhang Lianfu.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ashraf, W., Rehman, A., Hussain, A. et al. Optimization of Extraction Process and Estimation of Flavonoids from Fenugreek Using Green Extracting Deep Eutectic Solvents Coupled with Ultrasonication. Food Bioprocess Technol 17, 887–903 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03170-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03170-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation