SpringerLink
Log in

An experimental study on the apparent viscosity of sandy soils: from liquefaction triggering to pseudo-plastic behaviour of liquefied sands

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Acta Geotechnica Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The complete loss of soil strength and stiffness, which occurs during soil liquefaction, marks a change of state of the soil that switches from solid to liquid. In particular, several researchers reveal that the soil behaves as an equivalent visco-plastic material, characterized by an apparent viscosity (η). The paper aims to show the large potentiality of the apparent viscosity in the study of liquefaction. To do that, a dataset of already published undrained cyclic triaxial tests on five different sands has been processed according to a viscous perspective. Firstly, the research shows the relevance of η as a physically based parameter for the correct identification of the liquefaction triggering. Additionally, the experimental data confirm that the relationship between the apparent viscosity and the shear strain rate is a power law function as that characterizes non-Newtonian fluids. Such relationship allows to study the behaviour of liquefied soils, as long as the two parameters, k and n on which the relationship depends, are known. However, the direct dependence observed between two parameters allows to simplify the calibration procedures, implying the calibration of only one parameter (k), which would seem to be linked to the soil capacity (CSR). Finally, the results of laboratory tests have been extended to those of a nonlinear dynamic response analysis of a real site, located in Pieve di Cento (Italy), affected by extensive liquefaction phenomena during the 2012 Emilia Romagna earthquake. Starting from the expected value of CSR at each depth, k and n have been easily found through the proposed correlations. The good agreement of the calibrated pseudo-plastic law with the results of the dynamic analysis confirms the reliability of the proposed approach.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (United Kingdom)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Acacio AA, Kobayashi Y, Towhata I, Bautista RT, Ishihara K (2001) Subsidence of building foundation resting upon liquefied subsoil: case studies and assessment. Soils Found 41(6):111–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Aydan O (1995) Mechanical and numerical modelling of lateral spreading of liquefied soil. In: Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Earth-Geo Eng, Tokyo, vol 881886

  3. Bardet JP, Kapuskar M (1993) Liquefaction sand boils in San Francisco during 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. J Geotech Eng 119(3):543–562

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Cetin KO, Youd TL, Seed RB, Bray JD, Stewart JP, Durgunoglu HT, Lettis W, Yilmaz MT (2004) Liquefaction-induced lateral spreading at Izmit Bay during the Kocaeli (Izmit)-Turkey earthquake. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 130(12):1300–1313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Chen YM, Liu HL, Zhou YD (2006) Analysis on flow characteristics of liquefied and post-liquefied sand. Chin J Geotech Eng 28(9):1139–1143

    Google Scholar 

  6. Chen Y, Liu H (2011) Simplified method of flow deformation induced by liquefied sands. In: Design, construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance of bridges, pp 160–167

  7. Chen G, Zhou E, Wang Z, Wang B, Li X (2016) Experimental study on fluid characteristics of medium dense saturated fine sand in pre- and post-liquefaction. Bull Earthq Eng 14(8):2185–2212

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Chen G, Qi W, Tian S, Kai Z, Enquan Z, Lingyu X, Yanguo Z (2018) Cyclic behaviors of saturated sand-gravel mixtures under undrained cyclic triaxial loading. J Earthq Eng 22:1–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Chiaro G, Koseki J, Sato T (2012) Effects of initial static shear on liquefaction and large deformation properties of loose saturated Toyoura sand in undrained cyclic torsional shear tests. Soils Found 52(3):498–510

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Chiaradonna A, Tropeano G, d’Onofrio A, Silvestri F (2016) A simplified method for pore pressure build-up prediction: from laboratory cyclic tests to the 1D soil response analysis in effective stress conditions. In: Proceedings of the VI Italian conference of researchers in geotechnical engineering, Bologna, Procedia Engineering, vol 158, pp 302–307

  11. Chiaradonna A, Lirer S, Flora A (2020) A liquefaction potential integral index based on pore pressure build-up. Eng Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Chu DB, Stewart JP, Youd TL, Chu BL (2006) Liquefaction-induced lateral spreading in near-fault regions during the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(12):1549–1565

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Cubrinovski M, Robinson K, Taylor M, Hughes M, Orense R (2012) Lateral spreading and its impacts in urban areas in the 2010–2011 Christchurch earthquakes. NZ J Geol Geophys 55(3):255–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Da Fonseca A, Viana MS, Fourie AB (2015) Cyclic DSS tests for the evaluation of stress densification effects in liquefaction assessment. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 75:98–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Finn WD, Pickering DJ, Bransby PL (1971) Sand liquefaction in triaxial and simple shear tests. J Soil Mech Found Div 97:639–659

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Fioravante V, Giretti D (2016) Unidirectional cyclic resistance of Ticino and Toyoura sands from centrifuge cone penetration tests. Acta Geotech 11(4):953–968

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Flora A, Bilotta E, Chiaradonna A, Lirer S, Mele L, **ue L (2020) A field trial to test the efficiency of induced partial saturation and horizontal drains to mitigate the susceptibility of soils to liquefaction. Bull Earthq Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-020-00914-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Flora A, Lirer S, Silvestri F (2012) Undrained cyclic resistance of undisturbed gravelly soils. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 43:366–379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Hadush S, Yashima A, Uzuoka R (2000) Importance of viscous fluid characteristics in liquefaction induced lateral spreading analysis. Comput Geotech 27(3):199–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Hamada M, Wakamatsu K (1998) A study on ground displacement caused by soil liquefaction. Proc Jpn Soc Civil Eng 1998(596):189–208

    Google Scholar 

  21. Huang YT, Huang AB, Kuo YC, Tsai MD (2004) A laboratory study on the undrained strength of a silty sand from Central Western Taiwan. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 24(9–10):733–743

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Hwang JI, Kim CY, Chung CK, Kim MM (2006) Viscous fluid characteristics of liquefied soils and behavior of piles subjected to flow of liquefied soils. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 26(2–4):313–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Ishihara K, Yamazaki F (1980) Cyclic simple shear tests on saturated sand in multi-directional loading. Soils Found 20(1):45–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Ishihara K (1993) Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes. Geotechnique 43(3):351–451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Koseki J, Yoshida T, Sato T (2005) Liquefaction properties of Toyoura sand in cyclic tortional shear tests under low confining stress. Soils Found 45(5):103–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Lin W, Mao W, Koseki J (2017) Acoustic emission technology to investigate internal micro-structure behaviour of shear banding in sands. In: Advances in laboratory testing and modelling of soils and shales. Springer, Cham, pp 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52773-4_23

  27. Lin W, Mao W, Koseki J, Liu A (2018) Frequency response of acoustic emission to characterize particle dislocations in sandy soil. In: GeoShanghai international conference. Springer, Singapore, pp 689–697. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0125-4_77

  28. Lirer S, Chiaradonna A, Mele L (2020) Soil liquefaction: from mechanisms to effects on the built environment. Riv Ital Geotec. https://doi.org/10.19199/2020.2.0557-1405.025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Lirer S, Mele L (2019) On the apparent viscosity of granular soils during liquefaction tests. Bull Earthq Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-019-00706-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Matasovic N, Vucetic M (1993) Cyclic characterization of liquefiable sands. J Geotech Eng 119(11):1805–1822

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Mele L (2020) Experimental and theoretical investigation on cyclic liquefaction and on the effects of some mitigation techniques. PhD Thesis, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy

  32. Mele L, Flora A (2019) On the prediction of liquefaction resistance of unsaturated sands. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 125:105689

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Mele L, Flora A, Lirer S, d’Onofrio A, Bilotta E (2018) Experimental Study of the injectability and effectiveness of laponite mixtures as liquefaction mitigation technique. In: Geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics V: slope stability and landslides, laboratory testing, and in situ testing. American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, pp 267–275

  34. Mele L, Tian JT, Lirer S, Flora A, Koseki J (2019) Liquefaction resistance of unsaturated sands: experimental evidence and theoretical interpretation. Géotechnique 69(6):541–553

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Mele L, Lirer S, Flora A (2019) The specific deviatoric energy to liquefaction in saturated cyclic triaxial tests. In: 7th international conference on earthquake geotechnical engineering, 7ICEGE, Rome, pp 17–20. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429031274

  36. Mele L, Lirer S, Flora A (2019) The effect of confinement in liquefaction tests carried out in a cyclic simple shear apparatus. In: E3S web of conferences, vol 92. EDP Sciences, p 08002

  37. Mele L, Lirer S, Flora A (2019) The effect of densification on Pieve di Cento sands in cyclic simple shear tests. In: National conference of the researchers of geotechnical engineering. Springer, Cham, pp 446–453

  38. Nishimura S, Towhata I, Honda T (2002) Laboratory shear tests on viscous nature of liquefied sand. Soils Found 42(4):89–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. NTC (2018) Aggiornamento delle norme tecniche per le costruzioni. Ministero delle infrastrutture e dei trasporti

  40. Orense RP, Towhata I (1998) Three-dimensional analysis on lateral displacement of liquefied subsoil. Soils Found 38(4):1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Porcino D, Caridi G, Ghionna VN (2008) Undrained monotonic and cyclic simple shear behaviour of carbonate sand. Géotechnique 58(8):635–644

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Sasaki Y, Towhata I, Tokida K, Yamada K, Matsumoto H, Tamari Y, Saya S (1992) Mechanism of permanent displacement of ground caused by seismic liquefaction. Soils Found 32(3):79–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Seed HB, Idriss IM (1971) Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential. J Soil Mech Found Div 97:1249–1273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Seed B, Lee KL (1966) Liquefaction of saturated sands during cyclic loading. J Soil Mech Found Div 92:105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Silver ML, Tatsuoka F, Phukunhaphan A, Avramidis AS (1980) Cyclic undrained strength of sand by triaxial test and simple shear test. In: Proceedings of the 7th world conference on earthquake engineering, vol 3, pp 281–288

  46. Towhata I, Orense RP, Toyota H (1999) Mathematical principles in prediction of lateral ground displacement induced by seismic liquefaction. Soils Found 39(2):1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Towhata I, Sasaki Y, Tokida KI, Matsumoto H, Tamar Y, Yamada K (1992) Prediction of permanent displacement of liquefied ground by means of minimum energy principle. Soils Found 32(3):97–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Tropeano G, Chiaradonna A, d’Onofrio A, Silvestri F (2019) A numerical model for non-linear coupled analysis on seismic response of liquefiable soils. Comput Geotech 105:211–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Uzuoka R, Yashima A, Kawakami T, Konrad JM (1998) Fluid dynamics based prediction of liquefaction induced lateral spreading. Comput Geotech 22(3–4):243–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Verdugo R, Ishihara K (1996) The steady state of sandy soils. Soils Found 36(2):81–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Visone C (2008) Performance-based approach in seismic design of embedded retaining walls. PhD Thesis, University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli

  52. Wu J, Kammerer AM, Riemer MF, Seed RB, Pestana JM (2004) Laboratory study of liquefaction triggering criteria. In: 13th world conference on earthquake engineering, Vancouver, BC, Canada, Paper (No. 2580)

  53. Yamaguchi A, Mori T, Kazama M, Yoshida N (2012) Liquefaction in Tohoku district during the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake. Soils Found 52(5):811–829

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Yoshimi Y, Tanaka K, Tokimatsu K (1989) Liquefaction resistance of a partially saturated sand. Soils Found 29(3):157–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Zhou EQ, Lv C, Wang ZH, Chen GX (2014) Fluid characteristic of saturated sands under cyclic loading. In: Advances in soil dynamics and foundation engineering, pp 178–186

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author deeply acknowledges Prof. Alessandro Flora (University of Napoli, Federico II) and Prof. Stefania Lirer (University of Rome, Guglielmo Marconi) for their valuable suggestions and discussions on tests results and interpretation. Moreover, the author is grateful to Dr. Anna Chiaradonna (University of L’Aquila) for having provided the results of the analysis performed with SCOSSA.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy

    Lucia Mele

Authors
  1. Lucia Mele
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lucia Mele.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mele, L. An experimental study on the apparent viscosity of sandy soils: from liquefaction triggering to pseudo-plastic behaviour of liquefied sands. Acta Geotech. 17, 463–481 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-021-01261-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-021-01261-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation