Abstract
Global warming will increase the greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes of permafrost regions. However, little is known about the difference in GHG fluxes among different types of permafrost regions. In this study, we used the static opaque chamber and gas chromatography techniques to determine the fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) in predominantly continuous permafrost (PCP), predominantly continuous and island permafrost (PCIP), and sparsely island permafrost (SIP) regions during the growing season. The main factors causing differences in GHG fluxes among three types of permafrost regions were also analyzed. The results showed mean CO2 fluxes in SIP were significantly higher than that in PCP and PCIP, which were 342.10 ± 11.46, 105.50 ± 10.65, and 127.15 ± 14.27 mg m−2 h−1, respectively. This difference was determined by soil temperature, soil moisture, total organic carbon (TOC), nitrate nitrogen (NO3−-N), and ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) content. Mean CH4 fluxes were -26.47 ± 48.83 (PCP), 118.35 ± 46.93 (PCIP), and 95.52 ± 32.86 μg m−2 h−1 (SIP). Soil temperature, soil moisture, and TOC content were the key factors to determine whether permafrost regions were CH4 sources or sinks. Similarly, PCP behaved as the sink of N2O, PCIP and SIP behaved as the source of N2O. Mean N2O fluxes were -3.90 ± 1.71, 0.78 ± 1.55, and 3.78 ± 1.59 μg m−2 h−1, respectively. Soil moisture and TOC content were the main factors influencing the differences in N2O fluxes among the three permafrost regions. This study clarified and explained the differences in GHG fluxes among three types of permafrost regions, providing a data basis for such studies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
References
Alves BJR, Smith KA, Flores RA, Cardoso AS, Oliveira WRD, Jantalia CP, Urquiaga S, Boddey RM (2012) Selection of the most suitable sampling time for static chambers for the estimation of daily mean N2O flux from soils. Soil Biol Biochem 46:129–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.11.022
Buchanan PJ, Matear RJ, Lenton A et al (2016) The simulated climate of the Last Glacial Maximum and insights into the global marine carbon cycle. Clim past 12(12):2271–2295. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-2271-2016
Cavicchioli R, Ripple WJ, Timmis KN, Azam F, Bakken LR, Baylis M (2019) Scientists’ warning to humanity: microorganisms and climate change. Nat Rev Microbiol 17(9):569–586. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0222-5
Chen Q, Niu B, Hu Y, Luo T, Zhang G (2020a) Warming and increased precipitation indirectly affect the composition and turnover of labile-fraction soil organic matter by directly affecting vegetation and microorganisms. Sci Total Environ 714:136787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136787
Chen SS, Zang SY, Sun L (2020b) Characteristics of permafrost degradation in Northeast China and its ecological effects: A review. Sci Cold Arid Reg 12(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1226.2020.00001
Conrad R (2020) Importance of hydrogenotrophic, aceticlastic and methylotrophic methanogenesis for methane production in terrestrial, aquatic and other anoxic environments: A mini review. Pedosphere 30(1):25–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(18)60052-9
Dacal M, Baquerizo DM, Barquero J et al (2021) Temperature increases soil respiration across ecosystem types and soil development, but soil properties determine the magnitude of this effect. Ecosystems 25:184–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-021-00648-2
Fest BJ, Hinko Najera N, Wardlaw T, Griffith DWT, Livesley SJ, Arndt SK (2017) Soil methane oxidation in both dry and wet temperate eucalypt forests shows a near-identical relationship with soil air-filled porosity. Biogeosciences 14(2):467–479. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-467-2017
Friedl J, Cardenas LM, Clough TJ, Dannenmann M, Hu C, Scheer C (2020) Measuring denitrification and the N2O:(N2O+ N2) emission ratio from terrestrial soils. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 47:61–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2020.08.006
Gao WF, Yao YL, Gao DW, Wang H, Song LQ, Sheng HC, Cai TJ, Liang H (2019a) Responses of N2O emissions to spring thaw period in a typical continuous permafrost region of the Daxing’an Mountains, northeast China. Atmos Environ 214:116822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.116822
Gao WF, Yao YL, Liang H, Song LQ, Sheng HC, Cai TJ, Gao DW (2019b) Emissions of nitrous oxide from continuous permafrost region in the Daxing’an Mountains, Northeast China. Atmos Environ 198:34–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.10.045
Gao D, Sheng R, Whiteley AS, Moreira Grez B, Qin H, Zhang W, Zhan Y, Wei W (2020) Effect of phosphorus amendments on rice rhizospheric methanogens and methanotrophs in a phosphorus deficient soil. Geoderma 368:114312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114312
Gao D, Wang W, Gao W, Zeng Q, Liang H (2022a) Greenhouse gas fluxes response to autumn freeze–thaw period in continuous permafrost region of Daxing’an Mountains, Northeast China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(42):63753–63767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20371-2
Gao H, Tian H, Zhang Z, **a X (2022b) Warming-induced greenhouse gas fluxes from global croplands modified by agricultural practices: A meta-analysis. Sci Total Environ 820:153288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153288
Gleeson DB, Müller C, Banerjee S, Ma W, Siciliano SD, Murphy DV (2010) Response of ammonia oxidizing archaea and bacteria to changing water filled pore space. Soil Biol Biochem 42(10):1888–1891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.06.020
Holloway JE, Lewkowicz AG (2020) Half a century of discontinuous permafrost persistence and degradation in western Canada. Permafr Periglac Process 31(1):85–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2017
Howard D, Agnan Y, Helmig D, Yang Y, Obrist D (2020) Environmental controls on ecosystem-scale cold-season methane and carbon dioxide fluxes in an Arctic tundra ecosystem. Biogeosciences 17(15):4025–4042. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-4025-2020
Hugelius G, Strauss J, Zubrzycki S et al (2014) Estimated stocks of circumpolar permafrost carbon with quantified uncertainty ranges and identified data gaps. Biogeosciences 11(23):6573–6593. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-6573-2014
IPCC (2021) Summary for policymakers. In: Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pirani A, Connors SL (eds) The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-i/
** HJ, Ma Q (2021) Impacts of permafrost degradation on carbon stocks and emissions under a warming climate: A review. Atmosphere 12(11):1425. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12111425
** XY, ** HJ, Iwahana G, Marchenko SS, Luo DL, Li XY, Liang SH (2021) Impacts of climate-induced permafrost degradation on vegetation: A review. Adv Clim Chang Res 12(1):29–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.accre.2020.07.002
Lacerra M, Lund D, Yu J, Schmittner A (2017) Carbon storage in the mid-depth Atlantic during millennial-scale climate events. Paleoceanogr Paleoclimatol 32(8):780–795. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016PA003081
Lapham LL, Dallimore SR, Magen C et al (2020) Microbial greenhouse gas dynamics associated with warming coastal permafrost, Western Canadian. Arctic Front Earth Sci 8:582103. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.582103
Li F, Yang GB, Peng YF et al (2020a) Warming effects on methane fluxes differ between two alpine grasslands with contrasting soil water status. Agric For Meteorol 290:107988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2020.107988
Li LF, Zheng ZZ, Wang WJ et al (2020b) Terrestrial N2O emissions and related functional genes under climate change: A global meta-analysis. Glob Change Biol 26(2):931–943. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14847
Liu WJ, Chen SY, Liang JY, Qin X, Kang SC, Ren JW, Qin DH (2018) The effect of decreasing permafrost stability on ecosystem carbon in the northeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Sci Rep 8(1):4172. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22468-6
Liu C, Song YY, Dong XF, Wang XW, Ma XY, Zhao GY, Zang SY (2021) Soil enzyme activities and their relationships with soil C, N, and P in peatlands from different types of permafrost regions, Northeast China. Front Environ Sci 9:670769. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.670769
Liu H, Li Y, Pan B, Zheng X, Yu J, Ding H, Zhang Y (2022) Pathways of soil N2O uptake, consumption, and its driving factors: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(21):30850–30864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18619-y
Manabe S (2019) Role of greenhouse gas in climate change. Tellus A 71(1):1620078. https://doi.org/10.1080/16000870.2019.1620078
Margareta J, Torben RC, Akerman HJ, Terry VC (2006) What determines the current presence or absence of permafrost in the Torneträsk region, a sub-arctic landscape in Northern Sweden? Ambio 35(4):190–197. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2006)35[190:WDTCPO]2.0.CO;2
Marushchak ME, Pitkämäki A, Koponen H, Biasi C, Seppälä M, Martikainen PJ (2011) Hot spots for nitrous oxide emissions found in different types of permafrost peatlands. Glob Change Biol 17(8):2601–2614. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02442.x
Masyagina OV, Menyailo OV (2020) The impact of permafrost on carbon dioxide and methane fluxes in Siberia: A meta-analysis. Environ Res 182:109096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.109096
Meena A, Hanief M, Dinakaran J, Rao KS (2020) Soil moisture controls the spatio-temporal pattern of soil respiration under different land use systems in a semi-arid ecosystem of Delhi, India. Ecol Process 9(1):15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-020-0218-0
Miao YQ, Song CC, Wang XW, Meng H, Sun L, Wang JY (2016) Annual carbon gas emissions from a boreal peatland in continuous permafrost zone, Northeast China. Clean-Soil Air Water 44(5):456–463. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201400377
Nelson DW, Sommers LE (1996) Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In: Sparks DL (ed) Methods of soil analysis, part 3-chemical methods. Soil Sci Soc Am Wisconsin, pp 961–1010. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.3.c34
Obu J, Westermann S, Bartsch A et al (2019) Northern Hemisphere permafrost map based on TTOP modelling for 2000–2016 at 1 km2 scale. Earth Sci Rev 193:299–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.04.023
Prosser JI, Hink L, Rangin GC, Nicol GW (2020) Nitrous oxide production by ammonia oxidizers: Physiological diversity, niche differentiation and potential mitigation strategies. Glob Change Biol 26(1):103–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14877
Ren CJ, Wang T, Xu YD et al (2018) Differential soil microbial community responses to the linkage of soil organic carbon fractions with respiration across land-use changes. Forest Ecol Manag 409:170–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.11.011
Ren S, Ding JZ, Yan ZJ et al (2020) Higher temperature sensitivity of soil C release to atmosphere from northern permafrost soils as indicated by a meta-analysis. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 34(11):e2020GB006688. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GB006688
Schädel C, Bader MKF, Schuur EAG et al (2016) Potential carbon emissions dominated by carbon dioxide from thawed permafrost soils. Nat Clim Chang 6(10):950–953. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3054
Schuur EAG, McGuire AD, Schädel C et al (2015) Climate change and the permafrost carbon feedback. Nature 520(7546):171–179. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14338
Shakhova N, Semiletov I, Gustafsson O et al (2017) Current rates and mechanisms of subsea permafrost degradation in the East Siberian Arctic Shelf. Nat Commun 8(1):15872. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15872
Shrestha NK, Wang J (2018) Current and future hot-spots and hot-moments of nitrous oxide emission in a cold climate river basin. Environ Pollut 239:648–660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.068
Song CC, Zhang JB, Wang YY, Wang YS, Zhao ZC (2008) Emission of CO2, CH4 and N2O from freshwater marsh in northeast of China. J Environ Manag 88(3):428–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.03.030
Song CC, Xu XF, Tian HQ, Wang YY (2009) Ecosystem–atmosphere exchange of CH4 and N2O and ecosystem respiration in wetlands in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeastern China. Glob Chang Biol 15(3):692–705. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01821.x
Song XY, Wang GX, Hu ZY, Ran F, Chen XP (2018) Boreal forest soil CO2 and CH4 fluxes following fire and their responses to experimental warming and drying. Sci Total Environ 644:862–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.014
Song Y, Cheng X, Song C, Li M, Gao S, Z, Gao J, Wang X (2022) Soil CO2 and N2O emissions and microbial abundances altered by temperature rise and nitrogen addition in active-layer soils of permafrost peatland. Front Microbiol 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1093487
Stieglmeier M, Mooshammer M, Kitzler B et al (2014) Aerobic nitrous oxide production through N-nitrosating hybrid formation in ammonia-oxidizing archaea. ISME J 8(5):1135–1146. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2013.220
Sun L, Song CC, Lafleur PM, Miao YQ, Wang XW, Gong C, Qiao T, Tan W (2018) Wetland-atmosphere methane exchange in Northeast China: A comparison of permafrost peatland and freshwater wetlands. Agric for Meteorol 249:239–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2017.11.009
Tang XL, Pei XJ, Lei NF, Luo XR, Liu L, Shi LL, Chen G, Liang JJ (2020) Global patterns of soil autotrophic respiration and its relation to climate, soil and vegetation characteristics. Geoderma 369:114339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114339
Tian D, Niu S (2015) A global analysis of soil acidification caused by nitrogen addition. Environ Res Lett 10(2):024019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/2/024019
Tian H, Xu R, Canadell JG, Thompson RL, Winiwarter W, Suntharalingam P, Davidson EA, Ciais P, Jackson RB, Janssens Maenhout G (2020) A comprehensive quantification of global nitrous oxide sources and sinks. Nature 586(7828):248–256. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2780-0
Tong D, Li ZW, **ao HB, Nie XD, Liu C, Zhou M (2021) How do soil microbes exert impact on soil respiration and its temperature sensitivity? Environ Microbiol 23(6):3048–3058. https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.15520
Voigt C, Lamprecht RE, Marushchak ME, Lind SE, Novakovskiy A, Aurela M, Martikainen PJ, Biasi C (2017) Warming of subarctic tundra increases emissions of all three important greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Glob Change Biol 23(8):3121–3138. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13563
Voigt C, Marushchak ME, Mastepanov M et al (2019) Ecosystem carbon response of an Arctic peatland to simulated permafrost thaw. Glob Change Biol 25(5):1746–1764. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14574
Walz J, Knoblauch C, Tigges R, Opel T, Schirrmeister L, Pfeiffer EM (2018) Greenhouse gas production in degrading ice-rich permafrost deposits in northeastern Siberia. Biogeosciences 15(17):5423–5436. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5423-2018
Wang D, Zang S, Wu X, Ma D, Li M, Chen Q, Liu X, Zhang N (2021) Soil organic carbon stabilization in permafrost peatlands. Saudi J Biol Sci 28(12):7037–7045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.07.088
Wang X, Hu HB, Zheng X, Deng WB, Chen JY, Zhang S, Cheng C (2022) Will climate warming of terrestrial ecosystem contribute to increase soil greenhouse gas fluxes in plot experiment? A global meta-analysis. Sci Total Environ 827:154114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154114
Wu D, Dong W, Oenema O, Wang Y, Trebs I, Hu C (2013) N2O consumption by low-nitrogen soil and its regulation by water and oxygen. Soil Biol Biochem 60:165–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.01.028
Wu XW, Zang SY, Ma DL, Ren JH, Chen Q, Dong XF (2019) Emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O fluxes from forest soil in permafrost region of Daxing’an Mountains, Northeast China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(16):2999. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162999
Yan W, Zhong Y, Yang J, Shangguan Z, Torn MS (2022) Response of soil greenhouse gas fluxes to warming: A global meta-analysis of field studies. Geoderma 419:115865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2022.115865
Yin GA, Luo J, Niu FJ, Lin ZJ, Liu MH (2021) Thermal regime and variations in the island permafrost near the northern permafrost boundary in **datan, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Front Earth Sci 9:708630. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.708630
Yuan LM, Zhao L, Li R, Hu GJ, Du E, Qiao YP, Ma L (2020) Spatiotemporal characteristics of hydrothermal processes of the active layer on the central and northern Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Sci Total Environ 712:136392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136392
Zhang C, Zeng GM, Huang DL et al (2019) Biochar for environmental management: Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, contaminant treatment, and potential negative impacts. Chem Eng J 373:902–922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.05.139
Zhang HJ, Yao XD, Zeng WJ, Fang Y, Wang W (2020) Depth dependence of temperature sensitivity of soil carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane emissions. Soil Biol Biochem 149:107956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.107956
Zhang H, Tuittila ES, Korrensalo A, Laine AM, Uljas S, Welti N, Kerttula J, Maljanen M, Elliott D, Vesala T (2021a) Methane production and oxidation potentials along a fen-bog gradient from southern boreal to subarctic peatlands in Finland. Glob Chang Biol 27(18):4449–4464. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15740
Zhang ZQ, Wu QB, Hou MT, Tai BW, An YK (2021b) Permafrost change in Northeast China in the 1950s–2010s. Adv Clim Chang Res 12(1):18–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.accre.2021.01.006
Zhu RB, Ma DW, Xu H (2014) Summertime N2O, CH4 and CO2 exchanges from a tundra marsh and an upland tundra in maritime Antarctica. Atmos Environ 83:269–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.11.017
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31971468, 31870471).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Dawen Gao: Conceptualization, data curation, formal anglysis, investigation, funding acquistion, and writing-review & editing. Feng Li: Data curation, formal anglysis, and writing-original draft. Weifeng Gao: Validation and writing-review & editing. Qingbo Zeng: Investigation, and writing-original draft. Hong Liang: Funding acquisition, resources, supervision, and writing-review & editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
The authors agreed and approved the manuscript for publication in Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Gerhard Lammel
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gao, D., Li, F., Gao, W. et al. Greenhouse gas fluxes from different types of permafrost regions in the Daxing'an Mountains, Northeast China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 97578–97590 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29262-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29262-6