SpringerLink
Log in

Estimation of Water Quality Index and Factors Affecting Their Changes in Groundwater Resource and Nitrate and Fluoride Risk Assessment

  • Published:
Water, Air, & Soil Pollution Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this retrospective study was to assess the change that occurred in the quality of 34 groundwater resources within 10 years from 2011 to 2020 using multivariate statistical methods of ArcView GIS, water quality index (WQI), hierarchical cluster analyses (HCA), and hazard quotient (HQ) and also Monte Carlo simulation and sensitivity analyses to estimate the health risk raised by nitrate and fluoride. Our finding showed that the mean and standard deviation of measured parameters, including pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solid, color, calcium, magnesium, sodium, fluoride, chloride, nitrate, sulfate, bicarbonate, and total hardness, were 7.15 ± 0.13, 883 ± 320 (μS/cm), 378 ± 123 (mg/l), 3.86 ± 4.79 (TCU), 95 ± 21 (mg/l), 30 ± 8 (mg/l), 36 ± 13 (mg/l), 0.43 ± 0.14 (mg/l), 37.6 ± 19 (mg/l), 3.4 ± 1.5 (mg/l), 44 ± 10.3 (mg/l), 453 ± 124 (mg/l), and 360 ± 66 (mg/l). This result illustrates that the WQI ranged from 49.91 to 107.38, and the water quality was excellent, good, and weak in 11.7%, 74.6%, and 14.7% of samples, respectively. According to the WQI map, the unfavorable groundwater resource was located in areas with a high groundwater level and salty soil. The land use results showed that in areas with residential density, the concentration of nitrates was higher, as a result of which the risk index increased from 2011 to 2021. HQ analysis showed that fluoride and nitrate contents were below the risk limit (HQ < 1); however, HQ of fluoride was more than 1 infant group in 18.4% and 7.9% of samples in the wet season and warm season, respectively; consequently, care is needed to predict the changes in water quality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Germany)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

  • Adimalla, N. (2020). Spatial distribution, exposure, and potential health risk assessment from nitrate in drinking water from semi-arid region of South India. Human and ecological risk assessment: an international journal, 26(2), 310–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1508329

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adimalla, N., & Taloor, A. K. (2020). Hydrogeochemical investigation of groundwater quality in the hard rock terrain of South India using Geographic Information System (GIS) and groundwater quality index (GWQI) techniques. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 10, 100288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amirnejad, H., Taslimi, M., & Mazraeh, F. (2019). The effects of economic growth and urbanization of Mazandaran province of Iran on environmental quality of water with emphasis on rivers of the province. Agricultural Economics and Development, 27(2), 161–185. https://doi.org/10.30490/AEAD.2019.95472

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • APHA, AWWA, & WPCF. (2020). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asgari, G., Ghalehaskar, S., Moghaddam, V. K., Radfard, M., Heidarinejad, Z., Mohammadi, A. A., & Faraji, H. (2019). Monitoring and health risk assessment of fluoride in drinking water in Babol, Mazandaran Province, Iran. Desalination and Water Treatment, 165, 141–147. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.24553

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Azhdarpoor, A., Radfard, M., Pakdel, M., Abbasnia, A., Badeenezhad, A., Mohammadi, A. A., & Yousefi, M. (2019). Assessing fluoride and nitrate contaminants in drinking water resources and their health risk assessment in a semiarid region of southwest Iran. Desalination and Water Treatment, 149, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23865

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Badeenezhad, A., Abbasi, F., & Shahsavani, S. (2019). Performance of household water desalinations devices and health risks assessment of fluorides (F−) and nitrate (NO3−) in input and output water of the devices in Behbahan City southwest Iran. Human and ecological risk assessment: an international journal, 25(1-2), 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1568858

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Badeenezhad, A., Tabatabaee, H. R., Nikbakht, H.-A., Radfard, M., Abbasnia, A., Baghapour, M. A., & Alhamd, M. (2020). Estimation of the groundwater quality index and investigation of the affecting factors their changes in Shiraz drinking groundwater, Iran. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 11, 100435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100435

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bararkhanpour, S., Ghorbani, K., Salari Jazi, M., & Rezaei Ghaleh, L. (2020). Study of seasonal and annual rainfall changes with quantile regression method case study: Gorgan Hashem-Abad station. Journal of Climate Research, 1398(39), 89–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bazeli, J., Ghalehaskar, S., Morovati, M., Soleimani, H., Masoumi, S., Rahmani Sani, A., Saghi, M. H., & Rastegar, A. (2022). Health risk assessment techniques to evaluate non-carcinogenic human health risk due to fluoride, nitrite and nitrate using Monte Carlo simulation and sensitivity analysis in Groundwater of Khaf County, Iran. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 102(8), 1793–1813. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2020.1743280

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ben, Y., Fu, C., Hu, M., Liu, L., Wong, M. H., & Zheng, C. (2019). Human health risk assessment of antibiotic resistance associated with antibiotic residues in the environment: A review. Environmental Research, 169, 483–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.11.040

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bodrud-Doza, M., Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Islam, S. D.-U., Quraishi, S. B., Muhib, M. I., Rakib, M., & Rahman, M. S. (2019). Delineation of trace metals contamination in groundwater using geostatistical techniques: A study on Dhaka City of Bangladesh. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 9, 100212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.03.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chitsazan, M., Aghazadeh, N., Mirzaee, Y., & Golestan, Y. (2019). Hydrochemical characteristics and the impact of anthropogenic activity on groundwater quality in suburban area of Urmia city, Iran. Environment, development and sustainability, 21(1), 331–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-0039-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cloutier, V., Lefebvre, R., Therrien, R., & Savard, M. M. (2008). Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system. Journal of Hydrology, 353(3-4), 294–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.02.015

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dhakad, N., Deepak, S., & Choudhary, P. (2008). Water quality index of ground water (GWQI) of Jhabua Town, MP (India). Journal of Environmental Research and Development, 2(3), 443–446.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dourson, M. L. (2018). Let the IRIS Bloom: Regrowing the integrated risk information system (IRIS) of the US Environmental Protection Agency (Vol. 97). Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • El Baba, M., Kayastha, P., Huysmans, M., & De Smedt, F. (2020). Evaluation of the groundwater quality using the water quality index and geostatistical analysis in the Dier al-Balah Governorate, Gaza Strip, Palestine. Water, 12(1), 262. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010262

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Esfandeh, S., Danehkar, A., Salmanmahiny, A., Sadeghi, S. M. M., & Marcu, M. V. (2021). Climate change risk of urban growth and land use/land cover conversion: An in-depth review of the recent research in Iran. Sustainability, 14(1), 338. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Firestone, M., (2006). EPA/Age Grou** Guidance | US EPA ARCHIVE DOCUMENT, Environmental Protection Agency. United States of America. Retrieved 09 Sep 2023 from https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2408399/epaage-grou**guidance-us-epa-archive-document/3429927/

  • Gholizadeh, M., & Alinejad, M. (2018). Assessment of spatial variability of some affecting parameters on water quality of Zarin Gol River in Golestan province. Environmental Sciences, 16(1), 111–126 https://doi.org/envs.sbu.ac.ir/article_97896.html?lang=en

    Google Scholar 

  • Golaki, M., Azhdarpoor, A., Mohamadpour, A., Derakhshan, Z., & Conti, G. O. (2022). Health risk assessment and spatial distribution of nitrate, nitrite, fluoride, and coliform contaminants in drinking water resources of kazerun, Iran. Environmental Research, 203, 111850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111850

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, N. F. (2004). Drinking water quality: problems and solutions. John Wiley & Sons.. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO978051180538

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, W., Duan, W., Nover, D., Sahu, N., & Chen, Y. (2021). An integrated assessment of surface water dynamics in the Irtysh River Basin during 1990–2019 and exploratory factor analyses. Journal of Hydrology, 593, 125905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125905

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain, S., Mubeen, M., Ahmad, A., Akram, W., Hammad, H. M., Ali, M., Masood, N., Amin, A., Farid, H. U., Sultana, S. R., & Fahad, S. (2020). Using GIS tools to detect the land use/land cover changes during forty years in Lodhran District of Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21, 39676–39692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kawo, N. S., & Karuppannan, S. (2018). Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index and GIS technique in Modjo River Basin, central Ethiopia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 147, 300–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.06.034

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kayemah, N., Al-Ruzouq, R., Shanableh, A., & Yilmaz, A. G. (2021). Evaluation of groundwater quality using Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI) in Sharjah, UAE. The 5th International Conference on Power, Energy and Mechanical Engineering (ICPEME), Shanghai, China

  • Khan, R., & Jhariya, D. (2017). Groundwater quality assessment for drinking purpose in Raipur city, Chhattisgarh using water quality index and geographic information system. Journal of the geological society of India, 90(1), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-017-0665-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khosravi, R., Eslami, H., Almodaresi, S. A., Heidari, M., Fallahzadeh, R. A., Taghavi, M., . . . Peirovi, R. (2017). Use of geographic information system and water quality index to assess groundwater quality for drinking purpose in Birjand City, Iran, Desalin Water Treat, 67(1), 74-83. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2017.20458

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kia, F., Ghorbani, K., & Salarijazi, M. (2019). Assessment of spatial and temporal variations of groundwater quality using WQI during two decades in aquifer of Golestan province. Iranian Journal of Soil and Water Research, 50(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.22059/IJSWR.2018.237952.667723

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kyriazos, T. A. (2018). Applied psychometrics: sample size and sample power considerations in factor analysis (EFA, CFA) and SEM in general. Psychology, 9(08), 2207. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2018.98126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lumb, A., Sharma, T., Bibeault, J.-F. J. W. Q., & Exposure, & Health. (2011). A review of genesis and evolution of water quality index (WQI) and some future directions. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, 3(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-011-0040-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mirzaei, M., Jafari, A., Gholamalifard, M., Azadi, H., Shooshtari, S. J., Moghaddam, S. M., Gebrehiwot, K., & Witlox, F. (2020). Mitigating environmental risks: Modeling the interaction of water quality parameters and land use cover. Land Use Policy, 95, 103766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.12.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammadpour, A., Gharehchahi, E., Badeenezhad, A., Parseh, I., Khaksefidi, R., Golaki, M., et al. (2022). Nitrate in groundwater resources of Hormozgan province, Southern Iran: Concentration estimation, distribution and probabilistic health risk assessment using Monte Carlo simulation. Water, 14(4), 564. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14040564

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Najafi Saleh, H., Valipoor, S., Zarei, A., Yousefi, M., Baghal Asghari, F., Mohammadi, A. A., Amiri, F., Ghalehaskar, S., & Mousavi, K. A. (2020). Assessment of groundwater quality around municipal solid waste landfill by using water quality index for groundwater resources and multivariate statistical technique: A case study of the landfill site, Qaem Shahr City, Iran. Environmental geochemistry and health, 42(5), 1305–1319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00417-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • National Academies of Sciences, E., & Medicine. (2018). Progress toward transforming the integrated risk information system (IRIS) program: a 2018 evaluation. National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nikaeen, M., Shahryari, A., Hajiannejad, M., Saffari, H., Kachuei, Z. M., & Hassanzadeh, A. (2016). Assessment of the physicochemical quality of drinking water resources in the central part of Iran. Journal of Environmental Health, 78(6), 40–45 www.jstor.org/stable/26330391

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noori, M. M., Abdulrazzaq, K., Mohammed, A., & Abbas, A. (2017). Assessment of water quality and suitability of Euphrates river in Iraq for drinking purpose by applying water quality indices (WQIs) and geographical information system (GIS) techniques. International Journal of Science and Nature, 8(4), 741–756.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noroozi, N., Sadeghi, M., & Shahbazi, A. (2020). Study of changes in water quality index of Ziarat River at 2018 in Gorgan. Environmental Health, 6(3), 250–259. https://doi.org/10.22038/jreh.2020.47107.1356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Power, J. F., & Schepers, J. S. (1989). Nitrate contamination of groundwater in North America. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 26(3-4), 165–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(89)90012-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Radfard, M., Yunesian, M., Nabizadeh, R., Biglari, H., Nazmara, S., Hadi, M., Yousefi, N., Yousefi, M., Abbasnia, A., & Mahvi, A. H. (2018). Drinking water quality and arsenic health risk assessment in Sistan and Baluchestan, Southeastern Province, Iran. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: an International Journal, 25(4). https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1458210

  • Rahmani, Z., Gholami, M., Khoshnevis Zadeh, A., & Rezayee Kalantari, R. (2013). Investigation of Buin Zahra drinking water resources quality by using of GWQI. Alborz University Medical Journal, 2(3), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.18869/acadpub.aums.2.3.147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rezaei, H., Jafari, A., Kamarehie, B., Fakhri, Y., Ghaderpoury, A., Karami, M. A., Ghaderpoori, M., Shams, M., Bidarpoor, F., & Salimi, M. (2019). Health-risk assessment related to the fluoride, nitrate, and nitrite in the drinking water in the Sanandaj, Kurdistan County, Iran. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25(5), 1242–1250. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1463510

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rezvani Ghalhari, M., Kalteh, S., Asgari Tarazooj, F., Zeraatkar, A., & Mahvi, A. H. (2021). Health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in bottled water: A case study of Iran. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(35), 48955–48966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14027-w

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sadat-Noori, S., Ebrahimi, K., & Liaghat, A. (2014). Groundwater quality assessment using the water quality index and GIS in Saveh-Nobaran aquifer, Iran. Environmental Earth Sciences, 71(9), 3827–3843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2770-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saeedi, M., Abessi, O., Sharifi, F., & Meraji, H. (2010). Development of groundwater quality index. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 163(1), 327–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0837-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Talukdar, S., Singha, P., Mahato, S., Pal, S., Liou, Y.-A., & Rahman, A. (2020). Land-use land-cover classification by machine learning classifiers for satellite observations—A review. Remote Sensing, 12(7), 1135. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12071135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thayer, K. A., Angrish, M., Arzuaga, X., Carlson, L. M., Davis, A., Dishaw, L., Druwe, I., Gibbons, C., Glenn, B., Jones, R., & Kaiser, J. P. (2022). Systematic evidence Map (SEM) template: Report format and methods used for the US EPA integrated risk information system (IRIS) program, provisional peer reviewed toxicity value (PPRTV) program, and other “fit for purpose” literature-based human health analyses. Environment International, 169, 107468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tran, T. Q., Banning, A., & Wohnlich, S. (2020). Application of multivariate statistical analysis in mine water hydrogeochemical studies of the outcropped upper carboniferous. IMWA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vadiati, M., Asghari Moghaddam, A., & Nakhaei, M. (2017). Definition of Sarab aquifer hydrochemical facies distribution by means of fuzzy C-mean clustering and hierarchical cluster analysis methods. Iranian journal of Ecohydrology, 4(3), 763–773. https://doi.org/10.22059/IJE.2017.62624

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2022). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Incorporating the first and second addenda. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was conducted with funding from the Vice Chancellery for Research and Technology at the Golestan University of Medical Sciences (Grant No: 112260). This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Golestan University of Medical Sciences (Code No: IR.GOUMS.REC.1400.315). The authors wish to thank Seyyed Mohsen Alavi Nia, Habib Rahman Moghadam, and Moslem Sarani for their help and support in this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Health Systems Research, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran

    Hossein Faraji

  2. Environmental Health research center, Department of Environmental Health engineering, School of Health, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran

    Ali Shahryari

Authors
  1. Hossein Faraji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ali Shahryari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ali Shahryari.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Faraji, H., Shahryari, A. Estimation of Water Quality Index and Factors Affecting Their Changes in Groundwater Resource and Nitrate and Fluoride Risk Assessment. Water Air Soil Pollut 234, 608 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06626-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06626-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation