Abstract
Assessing and selecting plant species for mixed planting on vegetated roofs is essential for integrating nature-based solutions into urban environments. This study evaluated the growth performance of multi-species mixtures on an extensive vegetated roof in a semiarid region at the campus of the Catholic University of Córdoba, Argentina over two years. Three native species with different growth forms and stress tolerance (Phyla nodiflora, Grindelia cabrerae, Eustachys retusa) and exotic Sedum mexicanum were planted in 11 microcosms containing two, three and four species combinations. Green cover and survival rate were assessed at seven benchmark times over two annual growing seasons at the microcosms and individual-species levels. At year one end, significant inter-microcosms and inter-species differences in green cover were found. Nine microcosms attained > 80% total green cover, and six achieved > 80% total survival rate. At year two end, five microcosms sustained 60 − 80% total green cover and survival rate (P. nodiflora/E. retusa; G. cabrerae/E. retusa; G. cabrerae/E. retusa/S. mexicanum; P. nodiflora/E. retusa/S. mexicanum; and P. nodiflora/G. cabrerae/E. retusa/S. mexicanum). For intra-microcosms species performance, E. retusa and S. mexicanum attained notably higher green cover than the other two species. Eustachys retusa was notably a key driver among microcosms. The commensal and complementary roles of some species toward others were demonstrated. The combination of P. nodiflora and E. retusa showed the best performance after two years. Our findings indicated that some species perform better in less diverse plant mixtures.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data is available on request.
References
Akaike H (1974) A new look at the statistical model identifcation. IEEE Trans Autom Control 19:716–723. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705
Aloisio JM, Tuininga AR, Lewis JD (2016) Crop species selection effects on stormwater runoff and edible biomass in an agricultural green roof microcosm. Ecol Eng 88:20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.12.022
Aloisio JM, Palmer MA, Giempieri AR, Tuininga JD, Lewis JD (2017) Spatially dependent biotic and abiotic factors drive survivorship and physical structure of green roof vegetation. Ecol Appl. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1444
Bello FD, Lavorel S, Lavergne S, Albert CH, Boulangeat I, Mazel F, Thuiller W (2013) Hierarchical effects of environmental filters on the functional structure of plant communities: a case study in the French Alps. Ecography 36(3):393–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07438.x
Berardi U, GhaffrianHoseini A, GhaffrianHoseini A (2014) State-of-the-art analysis of the environmental benefits of green roofs. Appl Energy 115:411–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.10.047
Bertness MD, Callaway R (1994) Positive interactions in communities. Trends Ecol Evol 9(5):191–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(94)90088-4
Bianchini F, Hewage K (2012) How green are green roofs? Lifecycle analysis of green roof materials. Buil Environ 48:57–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.08.019
Brown C, Lundholm J (2015) Microclimate and substrate depth influence green roof plant community dynamics. Landsc Urban Plan 143:134–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.07.009
Buckland-Nicks M, Heim A, Lundholm J (2016) Spatial environmental heterogeneity affects plant growth and thermal performance on a green roof. Sci Total Environ 553:20–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.063
Butler C, Orians CM (2009, June). Sedum facilitates the growth of neighboring plants on a green roof under water limited conditions. In Seventh Annual Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities Conference, Awards and Trade Show, Atlanta, GA
Butler C, Orians CM (2011) Sedum cools soil and can improve neighboring plant performance during water deficit on a green roof. Ecol Eng 37(11):1796–1803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.06.025
Butler C, Butler E, Orians CM (2012) Native plants enthusiasm reaches new heights: Perceptions, evidence, and the future of green roofs. Urban For Urban Green 11(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2011.11.002
Cáceres N, Imhof L, Suárez M, Hick EC, Galetto L (2018) Assessing native germplasm for extensive green roof systems of semiarid regions. Ornam Hortic 24(4):466–476. https://doi.org/10.14295/oh.v24i4.1225
Cáceres N, Robbiati FO, Hick EC, Suárez M, Matoff E, Galetto L, Imhof L (2022) Analysis of biodiversity attributes for extensive vegetated roofs in a semiarid region of central Argentina. Ecol Eng 178:106602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106602
Calheiros SC, Pereira SIA (2023) Resilience of green roofs to climate change. In Pacheco-Torgal, F., Goran-Granqvist., C. (Eds.), Adapting the built environment for climate change. Design Principles for Climate Emergencies Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering (273–296). Elsevier
Castellar JA, Popartan LA, Pueyo-Ros J, Atanasova N, Langergraber G, Säumel I, Acuna V (2021) Nature-based solutions in the urban context: Terminology, classification and scoring for urban challenges and ecosystem services. Sci Tot Environ 779:146237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146237
Catalano C, Marcenò C, Laudicina VA, Guarino R (2016) Thirty years unmanaged green roofs: Ecological research and design implications. Landsc Urban Plan 149:11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.01.003
Chell S, Tomson N, Kim TDH, Michael RN (2022) Performance of native succulents, forbs, and grasses on an extensive green roof over four years in subtropical Australia. Urban For Urban Green 74:127631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127631
Claus K, Rousseau S (2012) Public versus private incentives to invest in green roofs: A cost benefit analysis for Flanders. Urban For Urban Green 11(4):417–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2012.07.003
Cook-Patton SC (2015) Plant biodiversity on green roofs. In: Sutton RK (Ed) Green Roof Ecosystems Springer International Publishing Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland, 193–209
Cook-Patton SC, Bauerle TL (2012) Potential benefits of plant diversity on vegetated roofs. J Environ Manage 106:85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.04.003
Coutts AM, Daly E, Beringer J, Tapper NJ (2013) Assessing practical measures to reduce urban heat: green and cool roofs. Build Environ 70:266–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.08.021
Cribari-Neto F, Zeileis A (2010) Beta regression in R. J Stat Softw 34(2):1–24
Du P, Arndt S, Farrell C (2018) Relationships between plant drought response, traits and climate of origin for green roof plant selection. Ecol Appl 28(7):1752–1761. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1782
Dunnett N (2015) Ruderal green roofs. In: Sutton RK (ed), Green Roof Ecosystems Springer International Publishing Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland, pp 233–255
Esfahani RE, Paço TA, Martins D, Arsénio P (2022) Increasing the resistance of Mediterranean extensive green roofs by using native plants from old roofs and walls. Ecol Eng 178:106576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106576
Farrell C, Szota C, Williams NSG, Arndt S (2013) High water users can be drought tolerant: using physiological traits for green roofs plant selection. Plant Soil 372:177–193. https://sci-hub.se/10.1007/s11104-013-1725-x
Farrell C, Livesley SJ, Arndt SK, Beaumont L, Burley H, Ellsworth D, Esperon-Rodriguez M, Fletcher TD, Gallagher R, Ossola A, Power SA, Marchin R, Rayner JP, Rymer PD, Staas L, Szota C, Williams NSG, Leishman M (2022) Can we integrate ecological approaches to improve plant selection for green infrastructure? Urban For Urban Green 76:127732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127732
Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau (2008) Guidelines for the Planning, Construction and Maintenance of Green Roofing, 2008 edition, e.V. (FLL) Bonn
Getter KL, Rowe DB (2006) The role of extensive green roofs in sustainable development. HortScience 41(5):1276–1285. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.41.5.1276
Grime JP (1974) Vegetation classification by reference to strategies. Nature 250:26–31
Gross CL, Fatemi M, Julien M, McPherson H, Van Klinken R (2017) The phylogeny and biogeography of Phyla nodiflora (Verbenaceae) reveals native and invasive lineages throughout the World. Diversity 9(2):20. https://doi.org/10.3390/d9020020
Guarino R, Andreucci MB, Leone M, Bretzel F, Pasta S, Catalano C (2021) Urban services to ecosystems: an introduction. In: Catalano C, Andreucci MB, Guarino R, Bretzel F, Leone M, Pasta S (eds) Urban Services to Ecosystems. Springer International Publishing Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland, pp 1–10
Heim A, Lundholm J (2014) Species interaction in green roofs vegetation suggest complementary planting mixtures. Lands Urban Plan 130:125–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.07.007
Imhof L, Cáceres N, Suárez M, Hick EC, Matoff E, Fraschina L, Videla E, Fioretti S, Derguy MR, Galetto L (2019) Manual de cultivo de plantas nativas y naturalizadas para espacios urbanos de bajo mantenimiento. EDUCC (ISBN 978–987–626-413-6)
Imhof L, Suárez E, Cáceres N, Robbiati F, Cáceres C, Broilo A, Pellizari L, Suárez M, Hick E, Matoff E, Galetto L (2021) Thermal performance of an extensive green roof under semiarid conditions in central Argentina. J Green Build 16(1):17–42. https://doi.org/10.3992/jgb.16.1.17
Jewsbury G, Loyola MJ, Carbone LM, Carreras ME, Pons SM, Martinat JE, Castillo Moine MA, Fuentes E (2016) Guía de Campo: Pastos posfuego. Córdoba Ecoval Editorial, 1st ed
Khöler M (2006) Long-term vegetation research on two extensive green roofs in Berlin. Urban Habitats 4(1):3–26
Koroxenidis E, Theodosiou T (2021) Comparative environmental and economic evaluation of green roofs under Mediterranean climate conditions - Extensive green roofs a potentially preferable solution. J Clean Prod 311:127563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127563
Kotze DJ, Kuoppamäki K, Niemikapee J, Mesimäki M, Vaurola V, Lehvävirta S (2020) A revised terminology for vegetated rooftops based on function and vegetation. Urban For Urban Green 49:126644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126644
Kotzen B (2018) Green roof social and aesthetic aspects. In Nature base strategies for urban and building sustainability, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp 273–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812150-4.00025-2
Ksiazek-Mikenas K (2014) The potential of green roofs to support urban biodiversity. Green Cities in the World. In: Briz J, Khöler M, de Felipe I (eds.) pp 101–124
Ksiazek-Mikenas K, Chaudhary VB, Larkin DJ, Skogen KA (2021) A habitat analog approach establishes native plant communities on green roofs. Ecosphere 12(9):e03754. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.3754
Lundholm JT (2006) Green roofs and facades: A habitat template approach. Urban Habitat 4(1):87–101
Lundholm JT (2015) Green roof plant species diversity improves ecosystem multifunctionality. J Appl Ecol 52(3):726–734. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12425
Lundholm J, MacIvor JS, MacDougall Z, Ranalli M (2010) Plant species and functional group combinations affect green roof ecosystem functions. PLoS One 5(3):e9677. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009677
Lundholm J, Tran S, Gebert L (2015) Plant functional traits predict green roof ecosystem services. Environ Sci Technol 49(4):2366–2374. https://doi.org/10.1021/es505426z
Luzuriaga AL, Sánchez AM, Maestre FT, Escudero A (2012) Assemblage of a semiarid annual plant community: Abiotic and biotic filters act hierarchically. PLoS One 7(7):e41270. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041270
MacIvor JS, Lundholm J (2011) Insect species composition and diversity on intensive green roofs and adjacent level-ground habitats. Urban Ecosystems 14(2):225–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-010-0149-0
MacIvor JS, Margolis L, Perotto M, Drake JA (2016) Air temperature cooling by extensive green roofs in Toronto, Canada. Ecol Eng 95:36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.06.050
Madre F, Vergnes A, Machon N, Clergeau P (2014) Green roof as habitat for wild plant species in urban landscapes: First insights from a large-scale sampling. Landsc Urban Plan 122:100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.11.012
McKinney ML (2006) Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol Conserv 127(3):247–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005
Merlo C, Vázquez C, Iriarte AG, Romero CM (2020) Chemical and spectroscopic characterization of humic substances from sediment and riparian soil of a highly polluted urban river (Suquía River, Córdoba, Argentina). Int J Sediment Res 35(3):287–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsrc.2019.10.004
Monterusso M, Rowe DB, Clayton R (2005) Establishment and persistence of Sedum spp. and native taxa for green roof applications. HortScience 40(2):391–396. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.40.2.391
Nagase A, Dunnett N (2013) Drought tolerance in different vegetation types for extensive green roofs: effects of watering and diversity. Landsc Urban Plan 97(3):318–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.005
Nagase A, Katagiri T, Lundholm J (2023) Investigation of moss species selection and substrate for extensive green roofs. Ecol Eng 189:106899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2023.106899
Oberndorfer E, Lundholm J, Bass B, Coffman R, Doshi H, Dunnett N, Gaffing S, Köhler M, Liu K, y Rowe, B. (2007) Green roofs as urban ecosystems: ecological structures, functions, and services. Bio Science 57(10):823–833. https://doi.org/10.1641/B/71005
Papafotiou M, Pergialioti N, Tassoula L, Massas I, Kargas G (2013) Growth of native aromatic xerophytes in an extensive Mediterranean green roof as affected by substrate type and depth and irrigation frequency. HortScience 48(10):1327–1333. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.48.10.1327
R Development Core Team (2022) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for statistical computing
Rasband WS (2018) ImageJ. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/, 1997–2018D
Robbiati FO, Cáceres N, Hick EC, Suárez M, Soto S, Barea G, Matoff E, Galetto L, Imhof L (2022) Vegetative and thermal performance of an extensive vegetated roof located in the urban heat island of a semiarid region. Build Environ 212:108791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.108791
Robbiati FO, Cáceres N, Barea G, Ovando G, Jim CY, Suárez M, Hick E, Rubio E, Galetto L, Imhof L (2023) Vegetated roofs as a nature-based solution to mitigate climate change in a semiarid city. Nature-Based Solutions 3:100069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbsj.2023.100069
Rowe DB, Getter KL, Durhman AK (2012) Effect of green roof media depth on Crassulacean plant succession over seven years. Landsc Urban Plan 104:310–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.11.010
Savi T, Dal Borgo A, Love VL, Andri S, Tretiach M, Nardini A (2016) Drought versus heat: What’s the major constraint on Mediterranean green roof plants? Sci Total Environ 566:753–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.100
Schneider A, Fusco M, Bousselot J (2014) Observations on the survival of 112 plant taxa on a green roof in a semiarid climate. J Liv Archit 1(5):10–30. http://greenroofs.org/resources/JOLA2014Volume1(Issue5)Schneider(etal).pdf
Schrieke D, Farrell C (2021) Trait-based green roof plant selection: water use and drought response of nine common spontaneous plants. Urban For Urban Green 65:127368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127368
Shafique M, Xue X, Luo X (2020) An overview of carbon sequestration of green roofs in urban areas. Urban For Urban Green 47:126515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126515
Sosa AJ, Cardo MV, Julien MH, Moonen AC (2017) Predicting weed distribution at the regional scale in the native range: environmental determinants and biocontrol implications of Phyla nodiflora (Verbenaceae). Weed Res 57(3):193–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/wre.12247
Sowińska-Świerkosz B, García J (2022) What are Nature-based solutions (NBS)? Setting core ideas to concept clarification? Nature-Based Solutions 2:100009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbsj.2022.100009
Suárez M, Cáceres N, Imhof L, Hick E, Fenoglio MS, Ivancovich G, Romero S, Cortadi M, Wulf E (2016) Relevamiento de techos verdes de la ciudad de Córdoba. Primer Diagnóstico. Ed. EDUCC, Córdoba
Suárez M, Galetto L, Cáceres N, Hick E, Mattof E, Imhof L (2019) Performance of native plant genotypes (Glandularia- Verbenaceae) on semi-intensive green roofs with low maintenance requirements. Cities Environ 12(2):1–17. https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cate/vol12/iss2/3
Sutton RK (2013) Seeding green roof with native. J Living Archit 1:20
Sutton RK (2015) Introduction to green roof ecosystem. Sutton RK (d) Green Roof Ecosystems. Springer International Publishing Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland, pp 1–25
Thuring CE, Dunnett NP (2019) Persistence, loss and gain: Characterizing mature greenroof vegetation by functional composition. Landsc Urban Plan 185:228–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.10.026
Thuring C, Dunnett N (2021) Nature as model: Evaluating the mature vegetation of early extensive green roofs. In: Catalano C, Andreucci MB, Guarino R, Bretzel F, Leone M, Pasta S (eds) Urban Services to Ecosystems. Springer International Publishing Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland, pp 183–205
Tilman D, Lehman CL (2002) Biodiversity, composition, and ecosystem processes: theory and concepts. In: Kinzig A, Tilman D, Pacala S (eds) Functional concepts consequences of biodiversity: Empirical progress and theoretical extensions. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA, pp 9–41
Torres C, Galetto L (2008) Importancia de los polinizadores en la reproducción de Asteraceae de Argentina Central. Acta Bot Venez 31(2):473–494
Van Mechelen C, Dutoit T, Kattge J, Hermy M (2014) Plant trait analysis delivers an extensive list of potential green roof species for Mediterranean France. Ecol Eng 67:48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.03.043
Van Mechelen C, Dutoit T, Hermy M (2015) Adapting green roof irrigation practices for a sustainable future: A review. Sustain Cities Soc 19:74–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2015.07.007
VanWoert ND, Rowe DB, Andresen JA, Rugh CL, Fernandez RT, **ao L (2005) Green roof stormwater retention: effects of roof surface, slope, and media depth. J Environ Qual 34(3):1036–1044. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2004.0364
Vijayaraghavan K (2016) Green roofs: a critical review on the role of components, benefits, limitations and trends. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 57:740–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.119
Wan Ismail WZ, Abdullah MN, Che-Ani AI (2019) A review of factors affecting carbon sequestration at green roofs. J Facil Manag 17(1):76–89. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFM-11-2017-0069
**e G, Lundholm J, MacIvor S (2018) Phylogenetic diversity and plant trait composition predict multiple ecosystem functions in green roofs. Sci Total Environ 628:1017–1026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.093
Zhang XQ (2016) The trends, promises and challenges of urbanisation in the world. Habitat Int 54(3):241–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.11.018
Zhang S, Lin Z, Zhang S, Ge D (2021) Stormwater retention and detention performance of green roofs with different substrates: Observational data and hydrological simulations. J Environ Manage 291:112682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112682
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Catholic University of Córdoba (Universidad Católica de Córdoba) for providing the space to conduct the experimental study, and the Agencia Nacional de Promoción, Investigación, Desarrollo Tecnológico e Innovación, Secretaría de Ciencia y Técnica (Universidad Nacional de Córdoba) and the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas for funding support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection Cáceres Natalia; Robbiati, Federico, Hick Emmanuel; Suárez Mario; and Matoff Evangelina. Figures, tables and analysis were performed by Cáceres Natalia and Robbiati Federico. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Cáceres Natalia; Robbiati Federico; Jim Chi Yung; Galetto Leonardo and Imhof Lelia and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Disclaimer
This work was supported by PRESTAMO BID-Proyecto de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica 2019-01920 and Proyecto de Investigación Plurianuales to L.I.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Cáceres, N., Robbiati, F.O., Suárez, M. et al. Growth performance of multi-species plant mixtures on an extensive vegetated roof: A two-year experimental study. Urban Ecosyst (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-023-01498-7
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-023-01498-7