Abstract
Patterns of Chondrichthyes species richness (CSR) are widely recognized as being influenced by environmental conditions. However, untangling the intricate interplay between anthropogenic impacts and spatial patterns of CSR remains a challenging endeavor. In this study, we evaluate the influence of thirteen human-related variables, encompassing human-induced effects and marine protected areas, on global CSR. Additionally, we explore their effects on threatened species, those declining, those utilized and traded, and those facing direct human-induced threats. Utilizing simple, multiple, and simultaneous regression models, we comprehensively investigated the relationship between human-altered variables and marine protected areas on CSR across oceanic regions. Our findings distinctly reveal a compelling convergence of human-related variables with CSR. Notably, factors such as global ocean acidification, demersal destructive practices (e.g., bottom trawling), pelagic low bycatch techniques (e.g., hook and line), and demersal non-destructive high bycatch methods (e.g., pots, traps) exhibit robust negative associations. Intriguingly, a positive association emerges with the presence of marine protected areas. Furthermore, our study underscores the profound impact of diverse human activities on CSR, significantly heightening their vulnerability to threats and imminent extinction risks. These results accentuate the critical significance of conservation strategies centered on marine protected areas, maximizing the optimized preservation of Chondrichthyes across marine ecosystems. In light of these insights, we stress the paramount role of planners and managers in mitigating direct human impacts on marine ecosystems, which is crucial for ensuring the enduring presence of Chondrichthyes across the oceans.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11160-023-09830-2/MediaObjects/11160_2023_9830_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11160-023-09830-2/MediaObjects/11160_2023_9830_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11160-023-09830-2/MediaObjects/11160_2023_9830_Fig3_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Bini LM, Diniz-Filho JLF, Rangel TFLVB, Akre TSB, Albaladejo RG, Albuquerque FS, Araújo MB et al (2009) Parameter estimation in geographical ecology: an empirical evaluation of spatial and non-spatial regression. Ecography 32:1–12
Birkmanis CA, Partridge JC, Simmons LW, Heupel MR, Sequeira AM (2020) Shark conservation hindered by lack of habitat protection. Glob Ecol Conserv 21:e00862
Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multi-model inference: a practical information-theoretic approach, 2nd edn. Springer, New York
Campana SE, Ferretti F, Rosenberg A (2016) Sharks and other elasmobranchs. The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment, World Ocean Assessment I, United Nations, pp 1437–1451
Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Raven PH (2020) Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117:13596–13602
Chin A, Molloy FJ, Cameron D, Day JC, Cramp J, Gerhardt KG, Heupel MR, Read M, Simpfendorfer CA (2023) Conceptual frameworks and key questions for assessingthe contribution of marine protected areas to shark andray conservation. Conserv Biol 37:e13917
Di Lorenzo M, Calò A, Di Franco A, Milisenda G, Aglieri G, Cattano C, Milazzo M, Guidetti P (2022) Small-scale fisheries catch more threatened elasmobranchs inside partially protected areas than in unprotected areas. Nat Commun 13:4381
Dixson DL, Jennings AR, Atema J, Munday PL (2015) Odor tracking in sharks is reduced under future ocean acidification conditions. Glob Change Biol 21:1454–1462
Dulvy NK, Fowler SL, Musick JA, Cavanagh RD, Kyne PM, Harrison LR, Carlson JK, Davidson LN, Fordham SV, Francis MP, Pollock CM, Simpfendorfer CA, Burgess GH, Carpenter KE, Compagno LJ, Ebert DA, Gibson C, Heupel MR, Livingstone SR, Sanciangco JC, Stevens JD, Valenti S, White WT (2014) Extinction risk and conservation of the world’s sharks and rays. Elife 3:1–34
Dulvy NK, Simpfendorfer CA, Davidson LNK, Fordham SV, Brautigam A, Sant G, Welch DJ (2017) Challenges and priorities in shark and ray conservation. Curr Biol 27:565–572
Dulvy NK, Pacoureau N, Rigby CL, Pollom RA, Jabado RW, Ebert DA, Finucci B, Pollock CM, Cheok J, Derrick DH, Herman KB, Sherman CS, VanderWright WJ, Lawson JM, Walls RH, Carlson JK, Charvet P, Bineesh KK, Fernando D, Simpfendorfer CA (2021) Overfishing drives over one-third of all sharks and rays toward a global extinction crisis. Curr Biol 31(22):5118–5119
Dutilleul P, Clifford P, Richardson S, Hemon D (1993) Modifying the t test for assessing the correlation between two spatial processes. Biometrics 49:305–314
Dziergwa J, Singh S, Bridges CR, Kerwath SE, Enax J, Auerswald L (2019) Acid-base adjustments and first evidence of denticle corrosion caused by ocean acidification conditions in a demersal shark species. Sci Rep 9:18668
ESRI (2011) ArcGIS desktop: Release 10.1. Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands, CA
Froeschke JT, Stunz GW, Wildhaber ML (2010) Environmental influences on the occurrence of coastal sharks in estuarine waters. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 407:279–292
Giménez J, Cardador L, Mazor T, Kark S, Bellido JM, Coll M, Navarro J (2020) Marine protected areas for demersal elasmobranchs in highly exploited Mediterranean ecosystems. Mar Environ Res 160:105033
Hair JF (2014) Multivariate data analysis, 7th edn. Pearson, London
Halpern BS, Walbridge S, Selkoe KA, Kappel CV, Micheli F, D’Agrosa C, Bruno JF, Casey KS, Ebert C, Fox HE, Fujita R, Heinemann D, Lenihan HS, Madin EMP, Perry MT, Selig ER, Spalding M, Steneck R, Watson R (2008) A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319:948
Halpern BS, Frazier M, Potapenko J, Casey KS, Koenig K, Longo C, Walbridge S (2015) Spatial and temporal changes in cumulative human impacts on the world’s ocean. Nat Commun 6:7615
Halpern BS, Frazier M, Afflerbach J, Lowndes JS, Micheli F, O’Hara C, Scarborough C, Selkoe KA (2019) Recent pace of change in human impact on the world’s ocean. Sci Rep 9(11):609
He Q, Silliman BR (2019) Climate change, human impacts, and coastal ecosystems in the anthropocene. Curr Biol 29:1021–1035
Hoegh-Guldberg O, Bruno JF (2010) The impact of climate change on the world’s marine ecosystems. Science 328:1523–1528
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (2020). The IUCN red list of threatened species. Version 2020-1. https://apiv3.iucnredlist.org/. Accessed 2023
International Union for Conservation of Nature (2023) The IUCN red list of threatened species. https://www.iucn.org/. Accessed 2023
Kissling WD, Carl G (2008) Spatial autocorrelation and the selection of simultaneous autoregressive models. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 17:59–67
Kyne PM, Jabado RW, Rigby CL, Dharmadi Gore MA, Pollock CM, Herman KB, Cheok J, Ebert DA, Simpfendorfer CA, Dulvy NK (2020) The thin edge of the wedge: extremely high extinction risk in wedgefishes and giant guitarfishes. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 30:1337–1361
Legendre P, Legendre L (1998) Numerical ecology, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Marshall KN, Kaplan IC, Hodgson EE, Hermann A, Busch DS, McElhany P, Essington TE, Harvey CJ, Fulton EA (2017) Risks of ocean acidification in the California current food web and fisheries: ecosystem model projections. Glob Change Biol 23:1525–1539
Myers RA, Ottensmeyer CA (2005) Extinction risk in marine species. In: Norse EA, Crowder LB (eds) Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea’s biodiversity. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp 58–79
O’Hara CC, Frazier M, Halpern BS (2021) At-risk marine biodiversity faces extensive, expanding, and intensifying human impacts. Science 372(6537):84–87
Pacoureau N, Rigby CL, Kyne PM, Sherley RB et al (2021) Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays. Nature 589(7843):567–571
Pistevos JCA, Nagelkerken I, Rossi T, Olmos M, Connell SD (2015) Ocean acidification and global warming impair shark hunting behaviour and growth. Sci Rep 5:16293
Pistevos JCA, Nagelkerken I, Rossi T, Connell SD (2016) Antagonistic effects of ocean acidification and warming on hunting sharks, Oikos, p 126
Queiroz N, Humphries NE, Couto A, Vedor M et al (2019) Global spatial risk assessment of sharks under the footprint of fisheries. Nature 572(7770):461–466
R Development Core Team (2020) A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. http://www.R-project.org. Accessed 2023
Rangel TF, Diniz-Filho JAF, Bini LM (2010) SAM: A comprehensive application for spatial analysis in macroecology. Ecography 33:46–50
Sherman CS, Simpfendorfer CA, Pacoureau N, Matsushiba JH, Yan HF, Walls RH, Dulvy NK (2023) Half a century of rising extinction risk of coral reef sharks and rays. Nat Commun 14(1):15
Simpfendorfer CA, Dulvy NK (2017) Bright spots of sustainable shark fishing. Current Biol 27(3):R97–R98
Stevens J, Bonfil R, Dulvy NK, Walker PA (2000) The effects of fishing on sharks, rays, and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the implications for marine ecosys-tems. ICES J Mar Sci 57:476–494
Talwar BS, Anderson B, Avalos-Castillo CG, del Pilar Blanco-Parra M, Briones A, Cardeñosa D, Dulvy NK (2022) Extinction risk, reconstructed catches, and management of chondrichthyan fishes in the Western Central Atlantic Ocean. Fish Fish 23(5):1150–1179
Tiktak GP, Butcher D, Lawrence PJ, Norrey J et al (2020) Are concentrations of pollutants in sharks, rays and skates (Elasmobranchii) a cause for concern? A systematic review. Mar Pollut Bull 160:111701
Torres-Romero EJ, Morales-Castilla I, Olalla-Tárraga MA (2016) Bergmann’s rule in the oceans? Temperature strongly correlates with global interspecific patterns of body size in marine mammals. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 25:1206–1215
UNEP–WCMC (2023) World database on protected areas
Worm B, Davis B, Kettemer L, Ward-Paige CA, Chapman D, Heithaus MR, Gruber SH (2013) Global catches, exploitation rates, and rebuilding options for sharks. Mar Policy 40:194–204
Yan HF, Kyne PM, Jabado RW, Leeney RH, Davidson LNK, Derrick DH, Finucci B, Freckleton RP, Fordham SV, Dulvy NK (2021) Overfishing and habitat loss drive range contraction of iconic marine fishes to near extinction. Sci Adv 7(7):1–10
Yates PM, Heupel MR, Tobin AJ, Simpfendorfer CA (2015) Ecological drivers of shark distributions along a tropical coastline. PLoS ONE 10:e0121346
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Editor in Chief, as well as an anonymous reviewer, for their useful and constructive comments on the manuscript. This study was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from CONAHCyT (Mexico) to E.J.T-R.
Funding
Not applicable.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors designed the direction of this study.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.
Consent for publication
All the authors agree with the contents of the manuscript and give their consent to submit. This work represents original research, and all authors consent to publication of this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Torres-Romero, E.J., Pérez Jiménez, J.C. Extinction risk of the world’s chondrichthyan fishes: a global assessment of the interplay between anthropogenic factors and marine protected areas. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 34, 685–701 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-023-09830-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-023-09830-2