Abstract
School adjustment of left-behind children (LBC) is a significant public health issue that may affect their well-being and mental health. In China, most left-behind children have a family structure in which the father goes out to work and the mother stays at home to take care of the children. As the sole caregiver in the family, a mother who shows support or destruction to the father’s parenting goals or behaviors in the process of raising children may affect the LBC’s school adjustment. However, the relationship between mothers’ co-parenting and LBC’s school adjustment and its mechanisms are unclear. This study aimed to explore the longitudinal influence of mothers’ co-parenting on school adjustment of father-absent LBC, and the mediating roles of paternal and maternal attachment. 284 father-absent LBC (177 boys and 107 girls) aged 8–11 (Mage = 8.43, SDage = 0.73) from Anhui Province completed questionnaires about mothers’ co-parenting, paternal and maternal attachment, and children’s school adjustment at two time. The results showed that (1) mothers’ positive co-parenting positively predicted LBC’s social competence, and mothers’ negative co-parenting positively predicted LBC’s antisocial behaviors; (2) Maternal attachment mediated the relationship between mothers’ co-parenting and LBC’s social competence, while paternal attachment mediated the association between mothers’ positive co-parenting and LBC’s antisocial behaviors. This study reveals the effect of mothers’ co-parenting on the school adjustment of father-absent LBC, and the unique mediating role of paternal and maternal attachment. Moreover, this research suggested that encouraging mothers to exhibit more positive co-parenting behaviors, reducing conflict and disparaging fathers, may be an effective way to promote LBC’s school adjustment.
Highlights
-
Mothers’ positive co-parenting promotes the development of father-absent LBC’s social competence, while mothers’ negative co-parenting promotes the occurrence of father-absent LBC’s antisocial behaviors.
-
Maternal attachment mediated the relationship between mothers’ co-parenting and LBC’s social competence, while paternal attachment mediated the association between mothers’ positive co-parenting and LBC’s antisocial behaviors.
-
This research suggested that encouraging mothers to show more positive co-parenting behaviors, reducing conflict and disparaging fathers, is beneficial to the development of maternal and paternal attachment, and further promotes father-absent LBC’s school adjustment.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10826-022-02273-6/MediaObjects/10826_2022_2273_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10826-022-02273-6/MediaObjects/10826_2022_2273_Fig2_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ainsworth, Salter, M. D., Bowlby, & John (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46(4), 333–341.
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(5), 427–454.
Bolger, N., DeLongis, A., Kessler, R. C., & Wethington, E. (1989). The contagion of stress across multiple roles. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(1), 175–183.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. London: Tavistock.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Kim, S., & Brown, A. C. (2002). Longitudinal pathways to competence and psychological adjustment among African American children living in rural single-parent households. Child Development, 73(5), 1505–1516.
Brown, G., Mcbride, B., Shin, N., & Bost, K. (2007). Parenting predictors of father-child attachment security: interactive effects of father involvement and fathering quality. Fathering, 5(3), 197–219.
Brown, G. L., Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Neff, C. (2010). Observed and reported supportive coparenting as predictors of infant-mother and infant-father attachment security. Early Child Development and Care, 180(1-2), 121–137.
Duan, C. R., & Zhou, F. L. (2005). A study on children left behind. Population Research, 1, 29–36.
Caldera, Y. M. (2004). Paternal involvement and infant-father attachment: a Q-Set study. Fathering, 2(2), 191–210.
Chen, L. L., Wu, X. C., & Liu, C. (2014). The relationship between marital satisfaction and father involvement: the mediation effect of coparenting. Psychological Development and Education, 30(3), 268–276.
Coates, E. E., Tran, Q., Le, Y., & Phares, V. (2019). Parenting, coparenting, and adolescent adjustment in African American single-mother families: an actor-partner interdependence mediation model. Journal of Family Psychology, 33(6), 649.
De Laet, S., Colpin, H., Van Leeuwen, K., Van den Noortgate, W., Claes, S., Janssens, A., & Verschueren, K. (2016). Transactional links between teacher–student relationships and adolescent rule-breaking behavior and behavioral school engagement: moderating role of a dopaminergic genetic profile score. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(6), 1226–1244.
Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent-child relations: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 118(1), 108–132.
Feinberg, M. E. (2003). The internal structure and ecological context of coparenting: a framework for research and intervention. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3(2), 95–131.
Gold, M. S., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Treatments of missing data: a Monte Carlo comparison of RBHDI, iterative stochastic regression imputation, and expectation-maximization. Structural Equation Modeling, 7(3), 319–355.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.
Holland, A. S., & Mcelwain, N. L. (2013). Maternal and paternal perceptions of coparenting as a link between marital quality and the parent-toddler relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(1), 117–126.
Hu, B. Y., Wu, H., Winsler, A., Fan, X., & Song, Z. (2020). Parent migration and rural preschool children’s early academic and social skill trajectories in China: are ‘left-behind’ children really left behind? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 317–328.
Huang, B. B., Zou, S. Q., Wu, X. C., & Liu, C. (2019). The association between father coparenting behavior and adolescents’ peer attachment: the mediating role of father-child attachment and the moderating role of adolescents’ neuroticism. Psychological Development and Education, 35(2), 176–183.
Jankowiak, W., & Moore, R. L. (2017). Family Life in China. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
**, C. C., Zou, H., Zeng, R., & Dou, D. H. (2010). The trait of attachment and the effect of attachment on social adjustment of middle school students: parents intimacy as a moderator. Psychological Development and Education, 26(6), 577–583.
Lam, C. B., Tam, C., Chung, K. K. H., & Li, X. (2018). The link between coparenting cooperation and child social competence: the moderating role of child negative affect. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(5), 692.
Lamb, M. E. (1976). Interactions between two-year-olds and their mothers and fathers. Psychological Reports, 38(2), 447–450.
Lewis, C., & Lamb, M. E. (2003). Fathers’ influences on children’s development: the evidence from two-parent families. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18(2), 211–228.
Li, J. J., Dou, K., & Nie, Y. G. (2018). Parental attachment and externalizing problems of adolescence: mediating effect of regulatory emotional self-efficiency. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26(006), 1168–1172.
Li, X. W., & Liu, Y. (2013). Rural left-behind children’s parent-child attachment, teacher-student relationship and subjective well-being under fathering absence. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21(03), 493–496.
Li, Y. F., X, L. Y., L, Y., Liu, L. J., & W, Y. (2014). The associations between mother-child relationship, teacher-child relationship and social adaptive behaviors for preschool migrant children. Psychological Development and Education, 30(6), 624–634.
Lin, Q., Wang, Z. Y., Lu, S., Liang, X., He, Q., Wang, Z., & Hu, R. S. (2014). Internal working models of toddlers: a bridge from maternal sensitivity to toddlers’ attachment behaviors. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 46(3), 353–366.
Lin, X. Y., Fang, X. Y., Li, H., Liu, C. Y., & Yang, Z. W. (2006). Prosocial tendencies and its effect on school adaptation among students in Yunnan province. Psychological Development and Education, 22(4), 44–51.
Liu, C., Wu, X. C., & Chen, L. L. (2014). Psychometric properties of the Chinese revision of co-parenting scale. Chinese. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22(4), 727–730.
Liu, X., Fan, X. H., & Shen, J. L. (2007). Relationship between social support and problem behaviors of the left-home-kids in junior middle school. Psychological Development and Education, 23(3), 98–102.
Liu, Y., Li, X., Chen, L., & Qu, Z. (2015). Perceived positive teacher-student relationship as a protective factor for Chinese left-behind children’s emotional and behavioural adjustment. International Journal of Psychology, 50(5), 354–362.
Luo, J., Wang, W., & Gao, W. B. (2009). Review of the studies on rural left-behind children in China. Advances in Psychological Science, 17(5), 990–995.
Ma, C. Q., & Huebner, E. S. (2008). Attachment relationships and adolescents’ life satisfaction: some relationships matter more to girls than boys. Psychology in the Schools, 45(2), 177–190.
Mack, R. A., & Gee, C. B. (2018). African American and latina adolescent mothers’ and their children’s fathers’ reports of coparenting and child behavior problems: child gender as a moderator. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(8), 2507–2518.
Martin, M. J., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Gutierrez, G. (2019). Attachment behavior and hostility as explanatory factors linking parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 33(5), 586.
McHale, J. P. (1997). Overt and covert coparenting processes in the family. Family Process, 36(2), 183–201.
Mchale, J. P., Kuersten-Hogan, R., Lauretti, A., & Rasmussen, J. L. (2000). Parental reports of coparenting and observed coparenting behavior during the toddler period. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(2), 220–236.
Minuchin, P. (1985). Families and individual development: provocations from the field of family therapy. Child Development, 56(2), 289–302.
Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Oxford: Harvard University Press.
Newland, R. P., Ciciolla, L., & Crnic, K. A. (2015). Crossover effects among parental hostility and parent-child relationships during the preschool period. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(7), 2107–2119.
Rohner, R. P., & Pettengill, S. M. (1985). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection and parental control among Korean adolescents. Child Development, 56, 524–528.
Stevenson, M. M., Fabricius, W. V., Cookston, J. T., Parke, R. D., Coltrane, S., Braver, S. L., & Saenz, D. S. (2014). Marital problems, maternal gatekee** attitudes, and father-child relationships in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1208–1218.
Su, S., Li, X., Lin, D., Xu, X., & Zhu, M. (2013). Psychological adjustment among left-behind children in rural China: the role of parental migration and parent-child communication. Child Care Health & Development, 39(2), 162–170.
Teubert, D., & Pinquart, M. (2010). The association between coparenting and child adjustment: a meta-analysis. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10(4), 286–307.
Wang, L., & Mesman, J. (2015). Child development in the face of rural-to-urban migration in China: a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(6), 813–831.
Wang, Z. Y., Liu, Y. Z., & Yang, Y. (2005). Review on the researches of attachment working models. Advances in Psychological Science, 13(05), 629–639.
Wen, M., & Lin, D. (2012). Child development in rural China: children left behind by their migrant parents and children of non-migrant families. Child Development, 83(1), 120–136.
Wentzel, K. R. (2003). School adjustment. In W. M. Reynolds & G. E. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Educational psychology, Vol. 7, pp. 235–258. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
White, & Lynn (1999). Contagion in family affection: mothers, fathers, and young adult children. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 61(2), 284–294.
Wiese, B. S., & Freund, A. M. (2011). Parents as role models: parental behavior affects adolescents’ plans for work involvement. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(3), 218–224.
Zemp, M., Johnson, M. D., & Bodenmann, G. (2018). Within-family processes: interparental and coparenting conflict and child adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(3), 299–309.
Zhang, X. (2013). Bidirectional longitudinal relations between father–child relationships and Chinese children’s social competence during early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(1), 83–93.
Zhang, F., Liu, Q., Zhao, Y., Sun, M. H., & Wang, H. (2011). Left-behind children’s mental health problems: a systematic review. Chinese Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine, 11(8), 849–857.
Zhao, J., Liu, X., & Wang, M. (2015). Parent-child cohesion, friend companionship and left-behind children’s emotional adaptation in rural China. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 190–199.
Zhao, J., Liu, X., & Zhang, W. (2013). Peer rejection, peer acceptance and psychological adjustment of left-behind children: the roles of parental cohesion and children’s cultural beliefs about adversity. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 45(7), 797–810.
Zou, S. Q., Wu, X. C., & Huang, B. B. (2019). Maternal gatekee** behavior and father- adolescent attachment: the mediating role of father involvement. Psychological Science, 6, 1361–1367.
Zou, S., & Wu, X. (2020). Coparenting conflict behavior, parent–adolescent attachment, and social competence with peers: an investigation of developmental differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(1), 267–282.
Zou, S., Wu, X., & Li, X. (2020). Coparenting behavior, parent–adolescent attachment, and peer attachment: an examination of gender differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(1), 178–191.
Funding
This research was funded by the Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project of Zhejiang Province, China (No. 22NDQN212YB) and the Major Project of Humanities and Social Sciences in universities of Zhejiang Province, China (No. 2021QN064). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of Zhejiang Provincial Social Science Planning Project and Zhejiang Provincial Major Humanities and Social Science Research Project. We are appreciative of the parents, children, and teachers who participated in our study and the people who assisted in data collection.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
All materials and procedures in the present study were approved by the Institute Review Board (IRB) of the University.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, D., Ding, W., **e, R. et al. The Longitudinal Influence of Mothers’ Co-parenting on School Adjustment of Left-Behind Children with Absent Fathers in China: The Mediating Role of Parent–Child Attachment. J Child Fam Stud 32, 2588–2597 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02273-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02273-6