Abstract
It is unclear whether children with autism spectrum disorders have atypical semantic fluency and lower memory for the semantics of words. Therefore, we examined semantic typicality, fluency and recall for the categories of fruits and animals in 60 children with autism aged 7–15 years (boys: 48/girls: 12) compared to 60 typically develo** controls. Relative to controls, the autism group had reduced animal fluency, fruit typicality and recall for fruits. Notably, these measures were associated with more autistic-like symptoms and/or lower adaptive functioning across the autism and control groups. In conclusion, atypical semantics of fruits in the autism group may reflect development of idiosyncratic semantic networks while their lower semantic fluency and recall suggest impaired executive language functions.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10803-022-05677-x/MediaObjects/10803_2022_5677_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10803-022-05677-x/MediaObjects/10803_2022_5677_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10803-022-05677-x/MediaObjects/10803_2022_5677_Fig3_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., & Bateman, J. R. (1994). Factorial structure of cognitive activity using a neuropsychological test battery. Behavioural Neurology, 7, 49–58. https://doi.org/10.3233/BEN-1994-7202
Becker, N., Piccolo, L. R., & Salles, J. F. (2019). Verbal Fluency Development Across Childhood: Normative Data from Brazilian-Portuguese Speakers and Underlying Cognitive Processes. Archives Of Clinical Neuropsychology : The Official Journal Of The National Academy Of Neuropsychologists, 34(7), 1217–1231. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acz022
Begeer, S., Wierda, M., Scheeren, A. M., Teunisse, J. P., Koot, H. M., & Geurts, H. M. (2014). Verbal fluency in children with autism spectrum disorders: clustering and switching strategies. Autism, 18(8), 1014–1018. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313500381
Bennetto, L., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1996). Intact and Impaired Memory Functions in Autism. Child development, 67(4), 1816–1835. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131734
Boucher, J., Mayes, A., & Bigham, S. (2012). Memory in autistic spectrum disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 138(3), 458–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026869
Bowler, D. M., Gaigg, S. B., & Gardiner, J. M. (2008). Subjective organisation in the free recall learning of adults with Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(1), 104–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0366-4
Burgoon, E. M., Henderson, M. D., & Markman, A. B. (2013). There Are Many Ways to See the Forest for the Trees: A Tour Guide for Abstraction. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(5), 501–520. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613497964
Carneiro, P., Albuquerque, P., & Fernandez, A. (2008). Portuguese category norms for children. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.1.177
Cole, M., Frankel, F., & Sharp, D. (1971). Development of free recall learning in children. Developmental Psychology, 4(2), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030435
Corbett, B. A., Constantine, L. J., Hendren, R., Rocke, D., & Ozonoff, S. (2009). Examining executive functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and typical development. Psychiatry Research, 166(2–3), 210–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.02.005
Desaunay, P., Briant, A. R., Bowler, D. M., Ring, M., Gerardin, P., Baleyte, J. M. … Guillery-Girard, B. (2020). Memory in autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Psychological Bulletin, 146(5), 377–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000225
Dias, N. M., & Seabra, A. G. (2014). The FAS fluency test in Brazilian children and teenagers: executive demands and the effects of age and gender. Arquivos de neuro-psiquiatria, 72, 55–62
Dunn, M., Gomes, H., & Sebastian, M. J. (1996). Prototypicality of responses of autistic, language disordered, and normal children in a word fluency task. Child Neuropsychology, 2(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049608401355
Eigsti, I. M., de Marchena, A. B., Schuh, J. M., & Kelley, E. (2011). Language acquisition in autism spectrum disorders: A developmental review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(2), 681–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.09.001
Gelman, S. A., & Meyer, M. (2011). Child categorization. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science, 2(1), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.96
Goddard, L., Dritschel, B., Robinson, S., & Howlin, P. (2014). Development of autobiographical memory in children with autism spectrum disorders: Deficits, gains, and predictors of performance. Development and Psychopathology, 26(1), 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000904
Goldstein, S., N. J (2013). Autism spectrum rating scales (ASRS) technical manual. New York: Multi-Health Systems,
Gonçalves, H. A., Cargnin, C., Jacobsen, G. M., Kochhann, R., Joanette, Y., & Fonseca, R. P. (2017). Clustering and switching in unconstrained, phonemic and semantic verbal fluency: the role of age and school type. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 29(6), 670–690. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2017.1313259
Happe, F., Booth, R., Charlton, R., & Hughes, C. (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain And Cognition, 61(1), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2006.03.004
Harrison, P. L., & Oakland, T. (2003). Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (2nd ed.).). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt
Henry, L. A., Messer, D. J., & Nash, G. (2015). Executive functioning and verbal fluency in children with language difficulties. Learning and Instruction, 39, 137–147
Hurks, P. P. M., Schrans, D., Meijs, C., Wassenberg, R., Feron, F. J. M., & Jolles, J. (2010). Developmental Changes in Semantic Verbal Fluency: Analyses of Word Productivity as a Function of Time, Clustering, and Switching. Child Neuropsychology, 16(4), 366–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297041003671184
Inokuchi, E., & Kamio, Y. (2013). Qualitative analyses of verbal fluency in adolescents and young adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(11), 1403–1410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.08.010
Kavé, G., Kigel, S., & Kochva, R. (2008). Switching and clustering in verbal fluency tasks throughout childhood. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 30(3), 349–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390701416197
Kiang, M., & Kutas, M. (2006). Abnormal typicality of responses on a category fluency task in schizotypy. Psychiatry Research, 145(2–3), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2005.12.010
Levinson, S., Eisenhower, A., Bush, H. H., Carter, A. S., & Blacher, J. (2020). Brief Report: Predicting Social Skills from Semantic, Syntactic, and Pragmatic Language Among Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(11), 4165–4175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04445-z
Liss, M., Harel, B., Fein, D., Allen, D., Dunn, M., Feinstein, C. … Rapin, I. (2001). Predictors and correlates of adaptive functioning in children with developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(2), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1010707417274
Lopez, B., & Leekam, S. (2003). Do children with autism fail to process information in context? Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry and allied disciplines, 44, 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00121
Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C. … Rutter, M. (2000). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Generic: A Standard Measure of Social and Communication Deficits Associated with the Spectrum of Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592401947
Maister, L., Simons, J. S., & Plaisted-Grant, K. (2013). Executive functions are employed to process episodic and relational memories in children with autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology, 27(6), 615–627. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034492
Marí-Bauset, S., Zazpe, I., Mari-Sanchis, A., Llopis-González, A., & Morales-Suárez-Varela, M. (2014). Food Selectivity in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review. Journal of child neurology, 29(11), 1554–1561. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073813498821
Mashal, N., & Kasirer, A. (2012). Principal component analysis study of visual and verbal metaphoric comprehension in children with autism and learning disabilities. Research In Developmental Disabilities, 33(1), 274–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.09.010
Murray, R. M., Bhavsar, V., Tripoli, G., & Howes, O. (2017). 30 Years on: How the Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis of Schizophrenia Morphed Into the Developmental Risk Factor Model of Psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(6), 1190–1196. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx121
Nelson, K. (1974). Variations in Children’s Concepts by Age and Category. Child development, 45(3), 577. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127823
Nowell, K., Bernardin, C., Brown, C., & Kanne, S. (2021). Characterization of Special Interests in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Brief Review and Pilot Study Using the Special Interests Survey. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04743-6
Panerai, S., Tasca, D., Ferri, R., Genitori, D., Arrigo, V., & Elia, M. (2014). Executive Functions and Adaptive Behaviour in Autism Spectrum Disorders with and without Intellectual Disability. Psychiatry journal, 2014, 941809–941809. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/941809
Pastor-Cerezuela, G., Fernandez-Andres, M. I., Feo-Alvarez, M., & Gonzalez-Sala, F. (2016). Semantic Verbal Fluency in Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder: Relationship with Chronological Age and IQ. Frontiers In Psychology, 7, 921. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00921
Phelan, H. L., Filliter, J. H., & Johnson, S. A. (2011). Brief Report: Memory Performance on the California Verbal Learning Test - Children’s Version in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(4), 518–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1069-9
Price, H. L., & Connolly, D. A. (2006). BatMon II: Children’s category norms for 33 categories. Behavior Research Methods, 38(3), 529–531. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192808
Quaranta, D., Caprara, A., Piccininni, C., Vita, M. G., Gainotti, G., & Marra, C. (2016). Standardization, Clinical Validation, and Typicality Norms of a New Test Assessing Semantic Verbal Fluency. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(5), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acw034
Ralph, M. A. L., Jefferies, E., Patterson, K., & Rogers, T. T. (2017). The neural and computational bases of semantic cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 18(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.150
Robinson, S., Goddard, L., Dritschel, B., Wisley, M., & Howlin, P. (2009). Executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorders. Brain And Cognition, 71(3), 362–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2009.06.007
Rodríguez-Ferreiro, J., & Aguilera, M. (2019). Schizotypal personality and semantic functioning: Revisiting category fluency effects in a subclinical sample. Psychiatry Research, 271, 365–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.074
Rutter, M., Le Couteur, A., & Lord, C. (2003). ADI-R -Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised. Manual. Western Psychological Services; Los Angeles
Sailor, K., Antoine, M., Diaz, M., Kuslansky, G., & Kluger, A. (2004). The effects of Alzheimer’s disease on item output in verbal fluency tasks. Neuropsychology, 18(2), 306–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.2.306
Sauzeon, H., Lestage, P., Raboutet, C., N’Kaoua, B., & Claverie, B. (2004). Verbal fluency output in children aged 7–16 as a function of the production criterion: qualitative analysis of clustering, switching processes, and semantic network exploitation. Brain And Language, 89(1), 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00367-5
Solomon, M., McCauley, J. B., Iosif, A. M., Carter, C. S., & Ragland, J. D. (2016). Cognitive control and episodic memory in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia, 89, 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.05.013
Tager-Flusberg, H. (1991). Semantic processing in the free recall of autistic children: Further evidence for a cognitive deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(3), 417–430. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1991.tb00886.x
Troyer, A. K., Moscovitch, M., & Winocur, G. (1997). Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency: evidence from younger and older healthy adults. Neuropsychology, 11(1), 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1037//0894-4105.11.1.138
Tyson, K., Kelley, E., Fein, D., Orinstein, A., Troyb, E., Barton, M. … Rosenthal, M. (2014). Language and verbal memory in individuals with a history of autism spectrum disorders who have achieved optimal outcomes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(3), 648–663. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1921-9
Verté, S., Geurts, H. M., Roeyers, H., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2006). Executive Functioning in Children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder: Can We Differentiate Within the Spectrum? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(3), 351–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0074-5
Wechsler, D. (2014). WISC–V Technical and Interpretive Manual Supplement. Special Group Validity Studies With Other Measures and Additional Tables.
Williams, D., Botting, N., & Boucher, J. (2008). Language in autism and specific language impairment: where are the links? Psychological Bulletin, 134(6), 944–963. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013743
World Health, O. (2004). ICD-10: international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems : tenth revision (2nd ed.). ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
None of the authors report any actual or potential conflict of interest, including any financial, personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappropriately influence, or be perceived to influence, the work.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Foldager, M., Vestergaard, M., Lassen, J. et al. Atypical Semantic Fluency and Recall in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders Associated with Autism Symptoms and Adaptive Functioning. J Autism Dev Disord 53, 4280–4292 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05677-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05677-x