Abstract
The control of surface heaving has been of interest in major applications of compaction grouting such as ground improvement and settlement compensation works. Some studies generalize compaction grouting as heave-inducing and thus the corresponding soil improvement increases with depth, while others do not. Effective planning of compaction grouting requires assessment of whether it is heave-inducing and understanding the effects of confining stresses on its mechanisms and effectiveness. Unfortunately, little effort has been made in this regard. The current paper addresses these issues through physical modeling of compaction grouting using a large-scale double-wall calibration chamber and injection system capable of injecting the stiff compaction grouts. The results of twenty-one test cases conducted under well-controlled conditions are presented, discussed, and compared with the results of actual compaction grouting. The confining stresses as represented in terms of the vertical stress (σV) and coefficient of earth pressure at rest (K0). The presented results and discussions show the reliability of the adopted modeling. Empirical correlations that engineers can use to predict the occurrence of surface heaving as well as pre-heaving compression of soil, surface heave, creep deformation, and residual increase of K0 for given confining stresses are newly introduced. The results of developed correlations show good comparison with those of actual compaction grouting. Implications for actual compaction grouting are also presented.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig7_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig8_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig9_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig10_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig11_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig12_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig13_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig14_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig15_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10706-024-02813-5/MediaObjects/10706_2024_2813_Fig16_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Enquiries about data availability should be directed to the authors.
References
Adhikari SR, Molnar S, Wang J (2024) Correlation between standard penetration resistance and shear wave velocity in Metropolitan Vancouver. Available at SSRN 4644557.
Au SKA, Soga K, Jafari MR, Bolton MD, Komiya K (2003) Factors affecting long-term efficiency of compensation grouting in clay. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 129(3):254–262. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:3(254)
Basu P, Madhav MR, Prezzi M (2009) Estimation of heave due to inclined compaction grouting. In: Advances in ground improvement: research to practice in the United States and China, pp 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1061/41025(338)25
Boulanger RW, Hayden RF (1995) Aspects of compaction grouting of liquefiable soil. J Geotech Eng 121(12):844–855. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:12(844)
Bowles JE (1997) Foundation analysis and design, 5th edn. McGraw-Hill Inc, Singapore
Brown DR, Warner J (1973) Compaction grouting. J Soil Mech Found 99(8):589–601. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0001911
Chin KH, Disla HP, Cote B (2013) Design and construction of compaction grouting for foundation soil improvements. In: Proceedings of the 7th international conference on case histories in geotechology Engineering, pp 1–9
Di H, Zhou S, Yao X, Tian Z (2021) In situ grouting tests for differential settlement treatment of a cut-and-cover metro tunnel in soft soils. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80(8):6415–6427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02276-5
El-Kelesh AM, Matsui T (2008) Calibration chamber modeling of compaction grouting. Geotech Test J 31(4):295–307. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ100792
El-Kelesh AM, Mossaad ME, Basha IM (2001) Model of compaction grouting. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 127(11):955–964. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:11(955)
El-Kelesh AM, Matsui T, Tokida K (2012) Field investigation into the effectiveness of compaction grouting. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 138(4):451–460. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000540
El-Kelesh AM, Matsui T, Hayahsi K, Fukada H (2000) Compaction grouting field test in Nagoya. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on ground improvement techniques, pp 157–166
El-Kelesh AM, Matsui T, Hayashi K, Tsuboi H, Fukada H (2002) Compaction grouting and ground surface upheave. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference on ground improvement techniques, pp 323–330
Fretti C, Presti DL, Pedroni S (1995) A pluvial deposition method to reconstitute well-graded sand specimens. J Geotech Testing 18(2):292–298. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10330J
Graf ED (1969) Compaction grouting technique and observations. J Soil Mech Found 95(5):1151–1158. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0001321
Hettiarachchi H, Brown T (2009) Use of SPT blow counts to estimate shear strength properties of soils: energy balance approach. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(6):830–834. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000016
Ho CE, Evans A (2018) Compaction grouting beneath brownstone buildings founded on soft ground. In: IFCEE 2018, No.287, ASCE, pp 109–124. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784481615.009
Ho CE (2017) Compaction grouting verification trial in Manhattan soil deposits. In: Proceeding of grouting 2017, Geotechnical Special Publication No.287, Reston, VA, pp 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784480786.016
Kang C, Brotherton M, Anderson K, Semeniuk K, Mayer G, Law A, Abdallah M (2024) Examination of the correlation between SPT and undrained shear strength: case study of clay till in Alberta Canada. Eng Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2024.107510
Mitchell JK, Kao TC (1978) Measurement of soil thermal resistivity. J Geotech Eng Division 104(10):1307–1320. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000706
MLIT (2002) Design and construction of the liquefaction prevention measures for the foundation soils of Tokyo international airport. Final Technical Report, Coastal Develop. Inst. of Tech., Port and Airport Dept., Kanto Reg. Develop. Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infra. and Transp., Japan
Moh ZC, Hwang RN, Fan CB, Chang JL (1997) Jacking up buildings by grouting. Proceedings of the 14th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, pp 1633–1636
Nishimura S, Takehana K, Morikawa Y, Takahashi H (2011) Experimental study of stress changes due to compaction grouting. Soils Found 51(6):1037–1049. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.51.1037
Orense RP (2008) Liquefaction remediation by compaction grouting. In: Proceedings of the New Zealand society for earthquake engineering annual technical conference, Wairakei, pp 1–8
Peck RB, Hanson WE, Thornburn TH (1974) Foundation engineering, 2nd edn. John Wiley and Sons, New York
Shrivastava N, Zen K (2017) An experimental study of compaction grouting on its densification and confining effects. J Geotech Geol Eng 36(2):983–993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-017-0369-7
Shrivastava N, Zen K (2018) Finite element modeling of compaction grouting on its densification and confining aspects. J Geotech Geol Eng 36:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-018-0468-0
Takenouchi K, Sassa S (2020) The new compaction grouting method with improved upheaval control. Lecture notes civil engineering. Geotech Sustain Infrastruct Dev 62:611–618. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2184-3_79
Wang SY, Chan DH, Lam KC, Au SKA (2010) Effect of lateral earth pressure coefficient on pressure-controlled compaction grouting in triaxial condition. Soils Found 50(3):441–445. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.50.441
Wang D, **ng X, Qu H, Zhang LM (2015) Simulated radial expansion and heave caused by compaction grouting in non-cohesive soils. Int J Geomech 15(4):04014069. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000333
Warner J, Brown DR (1974) Planning and performing compaction grouting. J Geotech Eng 100(6):653–666. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000058
Wilder D, Smith GC, Gómez J (2005) Issues in design and evaluation of compaction grouting for foundation repair. Innov Grout Soil Improv. https://doi.org/10.1061/40783(162)8
Wong HY (1971) Compaction of soil during pressure grouting. Private Rep, Cementation Research Ltd., Rickmansworth, Herts, UK
Zhang M, Wang XH, Wang Y (2011) Mechanism of grout bulb expansion and its effect on ground uplifting. J Cent South Univ Technol 18(3):874–880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-011-0776-5
Zhang Y, Xu L, Zhao L, Lin D, Liu M, Qi X, Han Y (2023) Process-microstructure-properties of CuAlNi shape memory alloys fabricated by laser powder bed fusion. J Mater Sci Technol 152:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2022.12.037
Zhou SH, **ao JH, Di HG, Zhu YH (2018) Differential settlement remediation for new shield metro tunnel in soft soils using corrective grouting method: case study. Can Geotech J 55(12):1877–1887. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0382
Funding
No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by the authors. All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kandil, N.A., Fallah, M.A. & El-Kelesh, A.M. Effects of Confining Stresses on Mechanisms of Heave-Inducing Compaction Grouting. Geotech Geol Eng (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-024-02813-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-024-02813-5