Abstract
Concern that human impacts on the environment may be harmful to natural resources such as soils as well as to living conditions is the major motivation for long-term environmental monitoring. However, the evidence that measurement bias is not constant through time affects time series as an artifact; this also holds true for chemical soil monitoring. Measurement instabilities occur along the whole measurement chain, from soil sampling to the expression of results. The first step in controlling measurement instability is to identify its relevant sources, and the second is to control it by stabilizing, minimizing, or quantifying measurement instability. For all five steps in the measurement process, from soil sampling to the expression of the analytical results, sources of measurement instability are identified and measures of control discussed, leading to the main conclusion concerning the requirement to continuously control the relevant environmental and measurement boundary conditions that may affect measurement instability. The innovative aspect of this paper consists in explicitly addressing measurement instability in chemical soil monitoring and tracking it along the whole measurement chain. The paper is also a plea for a change of paradigm in long-term environmental monitoring, namely to consider temporal measurements as unstable unless their degree of stability is traceably demonstrated, adequately quantified, and included in interpretation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alves, S., Correia dos Santos, M. M., & Trancoso, M. A. (2009). Evaluation of measurement uncertainties for the determination of the total metal content in soils by atomic absorption spectrometry. Accreditation and Quality Assurance, 14, 87–93.
Argyraky, A., Ramsey, M. H., & Thompson, M. (1995). Proficiency testing in sampling: Pilot study on contaminated land. Analyst, 120, 2799–2803.
Bartlett, R., & James, B. (1980). Studying dried, stored soil samples—some pitfalls. Soil Science Society of America journal, 44, 721–724.
Barwick, V. J., & Ellison, S. L. R. (1999). Measurement uncertainty: Approaches to the evaluation of uncertainties associated with recovery. Analyst, 124, 981–990.
Bay, S. D., Chrisman, L., Pohorille, A., & Shrager, J. (2004). Temporal aggregation bias an inference of causal regulatory networks. Journal of Computational Biology, 11, 971–985.
Beard, G. R., Scott, W. A., & Adamson, J. K. (1999). The value of consistent methodology in long-term environmental monitoring. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 54, 239–258.
Bellamy, P. H., Loveland, P. J., Bradley, R. I., Lark, R. M., & Kirk, G. J. D. (2005). Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003. Nature, 437, 245–248.
Berndt, G. F. (1988). Effect of drying and storage conditions upon extractable soil manganese. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 45, 119–130.
Billett, M. F., Parker-Jervis, F., Fitzpatrick, E. A., & Cresser, M. S. (1990). Forest soil chemical changes between 1949/50 and 1987. Journal of Soil Science, 41, 133–145.
Black, S. C. (1988). Defining control sites and blank sample needs. In L. H. Keith (Ed.), Principles of environmental sampling (pp. 109–117). Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society.
Blake, L., Goulding, K. W. T., Mott, C. J. B., & Poulton, P. R. (2000). Temporal changes in chemical properties of air-dried stored soils and their interpretation for long-term experiments. European Journal of Soil Science, 51, 345–353.
Bordas, F., & Bourg, A. C. M. (1998). A critical evaluation of sample pretreatment for storage of contaminated sediments to be investigated for the potential mobility of their heavy metal load. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 103, 137–149.
Bruand, A. (2002). Concentration and mobility of lithogenic trace metals in soils: Significance of anthropogenic lateral redistributions. Comptes Rendus Geosciences, 334, 581–582.
Cabidoche, Y. -M. & Voltz, M. (1995). Non-uniform volume and water content changes in swelling clay soil: II. A field study on a Vertisol. European Journal of Soil Science, 46, 345–355.
Cox, M. G., & Harris, P. M. (2006). Measurement uncertainty and traceability. Measurement Science & Technology, 17, 533–540.
Desaules, A. (1989). Die Erfassung und Beurteilung der Schwerkontamination bei der Verwendung von Stahlgeräten für die Entnahme und Aufbereitung von Bodenproben (Evaluation of heavy metal contamination by use of steel devices for soil sampling and preparation). Bulletin der Bodenkundlichen Gesellschaft der Schweiz, 13, 93–96 (In German with French summary).
Desaules, A., Dahinden, R., & Lischer, P. (1996). Consideration of the temporal stability of archived soil samples in terms of heavy metal and fluorine analyses with respect to long-term monitoring. Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der Lebensmittel-untersuchung un Hygiene, 87, 230–243. (In German with English summary).
Desaules, A., Ammann, S., & Schwab, P. (2010). Advances in long-term soil pollution monitoring of Switzerland. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 173, 525–535. doi:10.1002/jpln.200900269.
de Zorzi, P., Barbizzi, S., Belli, M., Barbina, M., Fajgelj, A., Jacimovic, R., et al. (2008). Estimation of uncertainty arising from different soil sampling devices: The use of variogram parameters. Chemosphere, 70, 745–752.
Dixon, E. M., Gardner, M. J., & Hudson, R. (1997). The comparability of sample preparation techniques for the determination of metals in sediments. Chemosphere, 35, 2225–2236.
Ellison, S. L. R., Rosselin, M., & Williams, R. (Eds.) (2000). Quantifying uncertainty in analytical measurement uncertainty arising from sampling: A guide to methods and approaches. Eurachem/CITAC Guide, Eurachem. 2nd ed. www.eurachem.org/guides/QUAM2000-1.pdf.
Erbach, D. C. (1987). Measurement of soil bulk density and moisture. Transactions ASAE, 30, 922–931.
Fernandez, I. J., Rustad, L. E., & Lawrence, G. B. (1993). Estimating total soil mass, nutrient content, and trace metals in soils under a low elevation spruce-fir forest. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 73, 317–328.
Ferretti, M., König, N., Rautio, P., & Sase, H. (2009). Quality assurance (QA) in international forest monitoring programmes: Activity, problems and perspectives from East Asia and Europe. Annals of Forest Science, 66, 403–415 (available at www.afs-journal.org).
Forest, C. E., & Reynolds, R. W. (2008). Hot question of temperature bias. Nature, 453, 601–602.
Gerlach, R. W., Dobb, D. E., Raab, G. A., & Nocerino, J. M. (2002). Gy sampling theory in environmental studies. Journal of Chemometrics, 16, 321–328.
Gillis, A. A., & Miller, D. R. (2000). Some local environmental effects on mercury emissions and absorption at a soil surface. Science of the Total Environment, 260, 191–200.
Gouretski, V., & Koltermann, K. P. (2007). How much is the ocean really warming? Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L01610. doi:10.1029/2006GL027834.
Gustavsson, B., Luthbom, K., & Lagerkvist, A. (2006). Comparison of analytical error and sampling error for contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, B138, 252–260.
Gy, P. (1982). Sampling of particulate materials—theory and practice, 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Gy, P. (2004a). Sampling of discrete materials—a new introduction to the theory of sampling. Part I. Qualitative approach. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 74, 7–24.
Gy, P. (2004b). Part IV: 50 years of sampling theory—a personal history. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 74, 49–60.
Gy, P. (2004c). Part V: Annotated literature compiled of Pierre Gy. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 74, 61–70.
Harrison, R. B., Adams, A. B., Licata, C., Flaming, B., Wagoner, G. L., Carpenter, P., et al. (2003). Quantifying deep-soil and coarse-soil fractions: Avoiding sampling bias. Soil Science Society of America journal, 67, 1602–1606.
Houba, V. J. G., Chardon, W. J., & Roelse, K. (1993). Influence of grinding of soil on apparent chemical composition. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 24, 1591–1602.
Houba, V. J. G., Novozamsky, I., & van der Lee, J. J. (1994). Aspects of pre-treatment of soils for inorganic chemical analysis. Quimica Analytica, 13, 94–99.
Hulme, M., & Jones, P. D. (1994). Global climate change in the instrumental period. Environmental Pollution, 83, 23–36.
Innes, J. L. (1995). Theoretical and practical criteria for the selection of ecosystem monitoring plots in Swiss forests. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 36, 271–294.
ISO (1993). Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement (GUM). Geneva: International Organization of Standardization (ISO).
Jackson, K. W., Eastwood, I. W., & Wild, M. S. (1987). Stratified sampling protocol for monitoring trace metal concentrations in soil. Soil Science, 143, 436–443.
JCGM (2008). International vocabulary of metrology—basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM). Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, report 200. Paris: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). www.bipm.org.
Kane, J. S. (1997). Analytical bias: The neglected component of measurement uncertainty. Analyst, 122, 1283–1288.
Kurfürst, U. (Ed.) (1998). In: Solid sample analysis. Berlin: Springer.
Kurfürst, U., Desaules, A., Rehnert, A., & Muntau, H. (2004). Estimation of measurement uncertainty by the budget approach for heavy metal content in soils under different land use. Accreditation and Quality Assurance, 9, 64–75.
Lamberty, A., Schimmel, H., & Pauwels, J. (1998). The study of the stability of reference materials by isochronous measurements. Fresenius’ Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 360, 359–361.
Linsinger, T. P. J., Pauwels, J., Lamberty, A., Schimmel, H. G., van der Veen, A. M. H., & Siekmann, L. (2001). Estimating the uncertainty of stability for matrix CRMs. Fresenius’ Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 370, 183–188.
Lyman, J. M., Willis, J. K., & Johnson, G. C. (2006). Recent cooling of the upper ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L18604. doi:10.1029/2006GL027033.
Lyn, J. A., Ramsey, M. H., Fussell, R. J., & Wood, R. (2003). Measurement uncertainty from physical sample preparation: Estimation including systematic error. Analyst, 128, 1391–1398.
Lyn, J. A., Ramsey, M. H., Damant, A. P., & Wood, R. (2007). Empirical versus modelling approaches to the estimation of measurement uncertainty caused by primary sampling. Analyst, 132, 1231–1237.
Mestek, O., Suchanek, M., & Hruby, V. (1999). Preparation and testing of standard solutions of cadmium, copper and lead. Accreditation and Quality Assurance, 4, 307–312.
Minkkinen, P. (1987). Evaluation of the fundamental sampling error in the sampling of particulate solids. Analytica Chimica Acta, 196, 237–245.
Minkkinen, P. (2004). Practical applications of sampling theory. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 74, 85–94.
Mol, G., Vriend, S. P., & van Gaans, P. F. M. (1998). Future trends, detectable by soil monitoring networks? Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 62, 61–66.
Morvan, X., Saby, N. P. A., Arrouays, D., Le Bas, C., Jones, R. J. A., Verheijen, F. G. A., et al. (2008). Soil monitoring in Europe: A review of existing systems and requirements for harmonization. Science of the Total Environment, 391, 1–12.
Muller, R. N., & Hamilton, M. E. (1992). A simple, effective method for determining the bulk density of stony soils. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 23, 313–319.
Mullins, E. (1994). Introduction to control charts in the analytical laboratory: Tutorial review. Analyst, 119, 369–375.
Narizzano, R., Fisso, F., Innocenti, R., Mollica, V., & Tortarolo, B. (2008). Soil subsampling in environmental sciences: The role of granulometry. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 10, 993–997.
Page-Dumroese, D. S., Jurgensen, M. F., Brown, R. E., & Mroz, G. D. (1999). Comparison of methods for determining bulk densities of rocky forest soils. Soil Science Society of America journal, 63, 379–383.
Pitard, F. F. (1993). Pierre Gy’s sampling theory and sampling practice, 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC.
Post, W. M., Izaurralde, R. C., Mann, L. K., & Bliss, N. (2001). Monitoring and verifying changes of organic carbon in soil. Climate Change, 51, 73–99.
Quevauviller, Ph. (2004). Traceability of environmental chemical measurements. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 23, 171–177.
Ramsey, M. H. (1993). Sampling and analytical quality control (SAX) for improved error estimation in the measurement of Pb in the environment using robust analysis of variance. Applied Geochemistry, Suppl. Issue, 2, 149–153.
Ramsey, M. H. (2004). When is sampling part of the measurement process? Accreditation and Quality Assurance, 9, 727–728.
Ramsey, M. H., Argyraki, A., & Thompson, M. (1995a). Estimation of sampling bias between different sampling protocols on contaminated land. Analyst, 120, 1353–1356.
Ramsey, M. H., Argyraki, A., & Thomson, M. (1995b). On the collaborative trial in sampling. Analyst, 120, 2309–2312.
Ramsey, M. H., & Ellison, S. L. R. (2007). Measurement uncertainty arising from sampling: A guide to methods and approaches. Eurachem/CITAC Guide, Eurachem. www.eurachem.org/guides/Ufs_2007.pdf.
Ramsey, M. H., Squire, S., & Gardner, M. J. (1999). Synthetic reference sampling target for the estimation of measurement uncertainty. Analyst, 124, 1701–1706.
Rawlins, B. G., Scheib, A. J., Lark, R. M., & Lister, T. R. (2009). Sampling and analytical plus subsampling variance components for five soil indicators observed at regional scale. European Journal of Soil Science, 60, 740–747.
Schroeder, W., Pesch, R., & Schmidt, G. (2004). Soil monitoring in Germany: Spatial representativity and methodological comparability. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 4, 49–58.
Schumacher, B. A., Shines, K. C., Burton, J. V., & Papp, M. L. (1990). Comparison of three methods for soil homogenization. Soil Science Society of America journal, 54, 1187–1190.
Skinner, R. J., & Todd, A. D. (1998). Twenty-five years of monitoring pH and nutrient status of soils in England and Wales. Soil Use and Management, 14, 162–169.
Thompson, M. (1996). Sense and traceability. Analyst, 121, 285–288.
Thompson, M., & Maguire, M. (1993). Estimating and using sampling precision in surveys of trace constituents of soils. Analyst, 118, 1107–1110.
Thompson, M., & Patel, D. K. (1999). Estimating sampling bias by using paired samples. Analytical Communications, 36, 247–248.
Thompson, M., & Ramsey, M. H. (1995). Quality concepts and practices applied to sampling—an exploratory study. Analyst, 120, 261–270.
Thompson, M., Coles, B. J., & Douglas, J. K. (2002). Quality control of sampling: Proof of concept. Analyst, 127, 174–177.
Thompson, D. W. J., Kennedy, J. J., Wallace, J. M., & Jones, P. D. (2008). A large discontinuity in the mid-twentieth century in the observed global mean-surface temperature. Nature, 453, 646–649.
Torri, D., Poesen, J., Monaci, F., & Busoni, E. (1994). Rock fragment content and fine soil bulk density. Catena, 23, 65–71.
Tyler, A. N., Carter, S., Davidson, D. A., Long, D. J., & Tip**, R. (2001). The extent and significance of bioturbation on 137Cs distribution in upland soils. Catena, 43, 81–99.
U.S. EPA (1989). Soil sampling quality assurance user’s guide. EPA/600/8-89/046, 2nd ed. Las Vegas: Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. http://www.epa.gov/nscep/.
U.S. EPA (1990). A rationale for the assessment of errors in the sampling of soils. EPA/600/4-90/013. Las Vegas: Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. http://www.epa.gov/nscep/.
VandenBygaart, A. J. (2006). Monitoring soil organic carbon stock changes in agricultural landscapes: Issues and proposed approach. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 86, 451–463.
Van-Camp, L., Bujarrabal, B., Gentile, A. -R., Jones, R. J. A. , Montanarella, L., Olazabal, C., et al. (2004). Reports of the technical working groups established under the thematic strategy for soil protection. Vol. 5: Monitoring. EUR 21319 EN/5. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 872 pp.
van Duijvenbooden, W. (1998). Soil monitoring systems and their suitability for predicting delayed effects of diffuse pollution. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 67, 189–196.
van Look, G., & Meyer, V. R. (2002). The purity of laboratory chemicals with regard to measurement uncertainty. Analyst, 127, 825–829.
Vaughan, H., Brydges, T., Fenech, A., & Lumb, A. (2001). Monitoring long-term ecological changes through the ecological monitoring and assessment network: Science based and policy relevant. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 67, 3–28.
Wagner, G., Lischer, P., Theocharopoulos, S., Muntau, H., Desaules, A., & Quevauviller, Ph. (2001). Quantitative evaluation of the CEEM soil sampling intercomparison. Science of the Total Environment, 264, 73–101.
Webster, R. (2000). Is soil variation random? Geoderma, 97, 149–163.
Wong, S. K. (2010). Purity verification and measurement uncertainty. Accreditation and Quality Assurance, 15, 337–341.
Wood, W. R., & Johnson, D. L. (1978). A survey of disturbance processes in archaeological site formation. In: M. J. Schiffer (Ed.), Advances in archaeological method and theory, 1 (pp. 315–381). San Francisco: Academic.
Wuest, S. B. (2009). Correction of bulk density and sampling method biases using soil mass per unit area. Soil Science Society of America journal, 73, 312–316.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Desaules, A. Measurement instability and temporal bias in chemical soil monitoring: sources and control measures. Environ Monit Assess 184, 487–502 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-1982-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-1982-1