Abstract
The present study examined the relationship between case managers’ expectations about the abilities of persons diagnosed with schizophrenia and the outcomes (as indicated via chart review) of a randomly selected sample of clients diagnosed with schizophrenia on their caseload. Results indicate that clients of case managers with higher expectations averaged significantly more months of progress in employment than clients of case managers with lower expectations. Case manager expectations were also better predictors of the number of days employed than other case manager and consumer characteristics, however the type of expectation was a critical determinant of the direction of the effect. Case manager expectations were not related to outcomes in living situation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Antonak, R., & Livneh, H. (1988). The measurement of attitudes toward people with disabilities. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social foundations of thought and action. In D. F. Marks (Ed.), The health psychology reader. London: SAGE Publications.
Barry, M. M. (1994). Community perceptions of mental disorder: An Irish perspective. Irish Journal of Psychology, 15, 418–447.
Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1991). The self-esteem scale. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. New York: Academic Press.
Borkin, J. R., Steffen, J. J., Ensfield, L. B., Krzoton, K., Wishnick, H., Wilder, K., et al. (2000). Recovery attitudes questionnaire: Development and evaluation. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 24, 95–102.
Burton, A. (1972). Hope and schizophrenia. Psychoanalytic Review, 59, 609–616.
Byrne, M. K., Deane, F. P., & Caputi, P. (2008). Mental health clinicians’ beliefs about medicines, attitudes, and expectations of improved medication adherence in patients. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 31, 390–403.
Byrne, M. K., Deane, F. P., & Coombs, T. (2005). Nurse’s beliefs and knowledge about medications are associated with their difficulties using patient treatment adherence strategies. Journal of Mental Health, 14, 513–521.
Chamberlain, R., & Rapp, C. A. (1991). A decade of case management: A methodological review of outcome research. Community Mental Health Journal, 27, 171–188.
Chinman, M., Allende, M., Bailey, P., Maust, J., & Davidson, L. (1999). Therapeutic agents of assertive community treatment. Psychiatric Quarterly, 70, 137–162.
Chinman, M., Young, A. S., Rowe, M., Forquer, S., Knight, Ed., & Miller, A. (2003). An instrument to assess competencies of providers treating severe mental illness. Mental Health Services Research, 5, 97–108.
Clark, K. A., Landis, D., & Fisher, G. (1990). The relationship of client characteristics to case management service provision: Implications for successful system implementation. Evaluation & Program Planning, 13, 221–229.
Cohen, C., Onserud, H., & Monaco, C. (1993). Outcomes for the mentally ill in a program for older homeless persons. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 44, 650–656.
Cohen, J., & Struening, E. L. (1962). Opinions about mental illness in the personnel of two mental hospitals. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 64, 349–360.
Corrigan, P. W. (1998). The impact of stigma on severe mental illness. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 5, 201–222.
Crane-Ross, D., Roth, D., & Lauber, B. G. (2000). Consumers’ and case managers’ perceptions of mental health and community support service needs. Community Mental Health Journal, 36(2), 161–178.
Darley, J. M., Fleming, J. H., Hilton, J. L., & Swann, W. B. (1988). Dispelling negative expectancies: The impact of interaction goals and target characteristics on the expectancy confirmation process. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 19–36.
Davidson, L., O’Connell, M. J., Tondora, J., Staeheli, M., & Evans, A. (2005). Recovery in serious mental illness: A new wine or just a new bottle? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 480–487.
Davidson, L., Tondora, J., Lawless, M. S., O’Connell, M. J., & Rowe, M. (2009). A practical guide to recovery-oriented practice: Tools for transforming mental health care. New York: Oxford University Press.
Deegan, P. E. (1992). The independent living movement and people with psychiatric disabilities: Taking back control over our own lives. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 15, 3–19.
D’Ercole, A., Struening, E., Curtis, J. L., Millman, E. J., & Morris, A. (1997). Effects of diagnosis, demographic characteristics, and case management on rehospitalization. Psychiatric Services, 48, 682–688.
Dietzen, L. L., & Bond, G. R. (1993). Relationship between case manager contact and outcome for frequently hospitalized psychiatric clients. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 44, 839–843.
Ellsworth, R. A. (1965). A behavioral study of staff attitudes toward mental illness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70, 194–200.
Frank, J. D. (1971). Therapeutic factors in psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 25, 350–361.
Frese, F. J., & Davis, W. W. (1997). The consumer-survivor movement, recovery, and consumer professionals. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 28, 243–245.
Hargreaves, W. A., Shaw, R. E., Shadoan, R., Walker, E., Surber, R., & Gaynor, J. (1984). Measuring case management activity. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 172, 296–300.
Harris, M., & Bergman, H. C. (1988). Clinical case management for the chronically mentally ill: A conceptual analysis. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 40, 5–13.
IBM SPSS Statistics 18 for Windows, Rel. 18.0.0. (2009). Chicago: SPSS Inc.
Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 131–155.
Krauft, C. C., Rubin, S. E., Cook, D. W., & Bozarth, J. D. (1976). Counselor attitude toward disabled persons and client program completion: A pilot study. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 7, 50–54.
Lamb, H. R., & Goertzel, V. (1972). High expectations of long-term ex-state hospital patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 471–475.
Link, B. (1982). Mental patient status, work, and income: An examination of the effects of a psychiatric label. American Sociological Review, 47, 202–215.
Lovejoy, M. (1982). Expectations and the recovery process. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 8, 605–609.
Martin, P. J., Guhr, K. E., Hunter, M. L., & Acree, N. J. (1977a). Therapists’ expectancies and patients’ improvement in treatment: The shape of the link. Psychological Reports, 40, 443–453.
Martin, P. J., Moore, J. E., Sterne, A. L., & McNairy, R. M. (1977b). Therapists prophesy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 502–510.
Martin, P. J., & Sterne, A. L. (1975). Prognostic expectations and treatment outcome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 572–576.
Martin, P. J., Sterne, A. L., Moore, J. E., & Friedmeyer, M. H. (1976). Patients’ and therapists’ expectancies and treatment outcome: An elusive relationship reexamined. Research Communications in Psychology, Psychiatry, and Behavior, 1, 301–314.
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 2, 99–113.
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1982). Burnout in health professions: A social psychological analysis. In G. S. Sanders & J. Suls (Eds.), Social psychology of health and illness (pp. 227–251). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Merton, R. K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. Antioch Review, 8, 193–210.
Mueser, K. T., Bond, G. R., Drake, R. E., & Resnick, S. G. (1998). Models of community care for severe mental illness: A review of research on case management. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 37–74.
Murray, M. G., & Steffen, J. J. (1999). Attitudes of case managers toward people with serious mental illness. Community Mental Health Journal, 35, 505–514.
Nordt, C., Rossler, W., & Lauber, C. (2006). Attitudes of mental health professionals toward people with schizophrenia and major depression. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 709–714.
O’Connell, M. J. (2000). The development of a measure of case manager expectations about the abilities of clients with schizophrenia: The case manager expectancy inventory. Master’s thesis, Bowling Green State University.
Pajares, F. (2006). Self-efficacy during childhood and adolescence: Implications for teachers and parents. In F. Pajares & T. Urban (Eds.), Self-efficacy and adolescence. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, Inc.
Quinlivan, R., Hough, R., Crowell, A., Beach, C., Hofstetter, R., & Kenworthy, K. (1995). Service utilization and costs of care for severely mentally ill clients in an intensive case management program. Psychiatric Services, 46, 365–371.
Rabkin, J. G. (1975). The role of attitudes toward mental illness in evaluation of mental health programs. In M. Guttentag & E. L. Struening (Eds.), Handbook of evaluation research (Vol. 2, pp. 431–481). Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Rapp, C. A. (1998). The active ingredients of effective case management: A research synthesis. Community Mental Health Journal, 34, 363–380.
Ridgely, S. M., Morrissey, J. P., Paulson, R. I., Goldman, H. H., & Calloway, M. O. (1996). Characteristics and activities of case managers in the RWJ Foundation program on chronic mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 47, 737–743.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NH: Princeton University Press.
Rosenfield, S. (1997). Labeling mental illness: The effects of received services and perceived stigma on life satisfaction. American Sociological Review, 62, 660–672.
Rosenthal, R. (2002). Covert communication in classrooms, clinics, courtrooms, and cubicles. American Psychologist, 57, 839–849.
Ryan, C. S., Sherman, P. S., & Judd, C. M. (1994). Accounting for case manager effects in the evaluation of mental health services. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 965–974.
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, co**, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219–247.
Schulz, R., Greenley, J. R., & Brown, R. (1995). Organization, management, and client effects on staff burnout. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 333–345.
Sells, D., Davidson, L., Jewell, C., Falzer, P., & Rowe, M. (2006). The treatment relationship in peer-based and regular case management services for clients with severe mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 57, 1179–1184.
Villano, C. L., Laudet, A., Rosenblum, A., Fong, C. L., Magura, S., Betzler, T., et al. (2005). Mental health clinicians’ 12-step referral practices with dually diagnosed clients. International Journal of Self Help and Self Care, 3, 63–71.
Widlak, P. A., Greenley, J. R., & McKee, D. (1992). Validity of case manager reports of clients’ functioning in the community: Independent living, income, employment, family contact and problem behaviors. Community Mental Health Journal, 28, 505–517.
Acknowledgments
Support for this study was received from grant #9.1137 from the Ohio Department of Mental Health. The research was conducted as partial fulfillment of the primary authors masters degree from Bowling Green State University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
O’Connell, M.J., Stein, C.H. The Relationship Between Case Manager Expectations and Outcomes of Persons Diagnosed with Schizophrenia. Community Ment Health J 47, 424–435 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-010-9337-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-010-9337-x