Abstract
Historical land-use conversion and drainage may increase the risk of high intensity, soil-consuming fires in peatlands. Severe fires may degrade ecosystem resilience through changes in hydrology and by removing remnant seed and bud banks. Lower ecosystem resilience leaves peatlands highly susceptible to species invasions from aggressive colonizing vegetation post-disturbance. In this work we aimed to address the impacts of smoldering fires on the abundance of the noxious Phragmites australis in a large fire scar at the Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge (VA and NC, USA). Primarily, we wanted to observe the extent of the relationship between the altered hydrology of post-fire conditions and P. australis occurrence. We did so by leveraging high resolution satellite imagery, random forest models, LiDAR data, and water table observations. Our results suggest that P. australis is aided by a hydrologic regime generated, in part, from the combined effects of drainage and deep smoldering fires. Our findings emphasize the importance of hydrologic management post-disturbance for limiting P. australis invasion. Further, we highlight the potential for feedbacks between deep peat-consuming burns and P. australis invasions and spread in degraded peatlands.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data will be made available on reasonable request.
References
Able KW, Hagan SM (2003) Impact of common reed, phragmites australis, on essential fish habitat: influence on reproduction, embryological development, and larval abundance of mummichog (Fundulus Heteroclitus). Estuaries 26(1):40–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02691692
Adelabu S, Mutanga O, Adam E (2015) Testing the reliability and stability of the internal accuracy assessment of random forest for classifying tree defoliation levels using different validation methods. Geocarto Int 30(7):810–821. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2014.997303
Allouche O, Tsoar A, Kadmon R (2006) Assessing the accuracy of species distribution models: prevalence, kappa and the true skill statistic (Tss). J Appl Ecol 43(6):1223–1232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01214.x
Amsberry L, Baker MA, Ewanchuk PJ, Bertness MD (2000) Clonal integration and the expansion of Phragmites Australis. Ecol Appl 10(4):1110. https://doi.org/10.2307/2641020
Barrd SC (2006) Great dismal swamp national wildlife refuge and nansemond national wildlife refuge final comprehensive conservation plan. Suffolk, VA, USA
Bart D, Hartman JM (2003) The role of large rhizome dispersal and low salinity windows in the establishment of common reed, Phragmites australis, in salt marshes: new links to human activities. Estuaries 26(2):436–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02823720
Breiman L (2001) Statistical modeling: the two cultures (with comments and a rejoinder by the author). Stat Sci 16(3):199–231. https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1009213726
Chimner RA, Cooper DJ, Wurster FC, Rochefort L (2016) An overview of peatland restoration in North America: where are we after 25 years? Restor Ecol 25(2):283–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12434
Cowie NR, Sutherland WJ, Ditlhogo MKM, James R (1992) The effects of conservation management of reed beds. Ii. The flora and litter disappearance. J Appl Ecol 29(2):277. https://doi.org/10.2307/2404496
D’Antonio CM, Vitousek PM (1992) Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 23:63–87
Davis FW, Stine PA, Stoms DM, Borchert MI, Hollander AD (1995) Gap analysis of the actual vegetation of California 1. The Southwest Region. Madroño 42(1):40–78
Dix ME, Buford M, Slavicek J, Solomon AM (2010) Invasive species and disturbances: current and future roles of forest service research and development (a dynamic invasive species research vision: opportunities and priorities 2009–29, Issue. U. S. F. Service
Evans J, Murphy M (2022) Spatialeco. R Package Version 2.0-0. https://github.com/jeffreyevans/spatialEco
Farnsworth EJ, Meyerson LA (1999) Species composition and inter-annual dynamics of a freshwater tidal plant community following removal of the invasive grass, Phragmites australis. Biol Invasions 1(2/3):115–127. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1010068607630
Flannigan M, Stocks B, Turetsky M, Wotton M (2009) Impacts of climate change on fire activity and fire management in the circumboreal forest. Glob Change Biol 15(3):549–560. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01660.x
Gorham E, Rochefort L (2003) Peatland restoration: a brief assessment with special reference tosphagnumbogs. Wetl Ecol Manage 11(1/2):109–119. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022065723511
Haslam SM (1972) Phragmites Communis Trin. (Arundo Phragmites L.? Phragmites Australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steudel). J Ecol 60(2):585. https://doi.org/10.2307/2258363
Hellings SE, Gallagher JL (1992) The effects of salinity and flooding on Phragmites Australis. J Appl Ecol 29(1):41. https://doi.org/10.2307/2404345
Hudon C, Gagnon P, Jean M (2005) Hydrological factors controlling the spread of common reed (Phragmites Australis) in Thest. Lawrence River (Québec, Canada). Écoscience 12(3):347–357. https://doi.org/10.2980/i1195-6860-12-3-347.1
Hutchinson GE (1967) A treatise on limnology, Vol 2: introduction to lake biology and the limnoplankton, vol 2. Wiley, New Jersey
Ji YH, Zhou GS, Lv GH, Zhao XL, Jia QY (2009) Expansion of phragmites Australisin the Liaohe Delta. North-East China Weed Res 49(6):613–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2009.00727.x
Kercher SM, Carpenter QJ, Zedler JB (2004) Interrelationships of hydrologie disturbance, reed canary grass (Phalaris Arundinacea L), and native plants in wisconsin wet meadows. Nat Areas J 24(4):316–325
Kettenring KM, Mock KE (2012) Genetic diversity, reproductive mode, and dispersal differ between the cryptic invader, phragmites australis, and its native conspecific. Biol Invasions 14(12):2489–2504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-012-0246-5
Kettridge N, Turetsky MR, Sherwood JH, Thompson DK, Miller CA, Benscoter BW, Flannigan MD, Wotton BM, Waddington JM (2015) Moderate drop in water table increases peatland vulnerability to post-fire regime shift. Sci Rep 5:8063. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08063
Kimura H, Tsuyuzaki S (2011) Fire severity affects vegetation and seed bank in a wetland. Appl Veg Sci 14(3):350–357. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-109X.2011.01126.x
L3Harris Geospatial (2021) Vegetation Indices https://www.l3harrisgeospatial.com/docs/vegetationindices.html
Lane C, Liu H, Autrey B, Anenkhonov O, Chepinoga V, Wu Q (2014) Improved wetland classification using eight-band high resolution satellite imagery and a hybrid approach. Remote Sens 6(12):12187–12216. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61212187
Liaw A, Wiener M (2002) Classification and regression by randomforest. R News 2(3):18–22
Link NT, McLaughlin DL, Stewart RD, Strahm BD, Varner JM, Word CS, Wurster FC (2023) Hydrologic-based modelling of burn depth potentials in degraded peat soils. Hydrol Process 37(1):e14808. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14808
Long AL, Kettenring KM, Hawkins CP, Neale CMU (2016) Distribution and drivers of a widespread, invasive wetland grass, Phragmites Australis, in wetlands of the Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA. Wetlands 37(1):45–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-016-0838-4
Loveless CM (1959) A study of the vegetation in the Florida everglades. Ecology 40(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.2307/1929916
Ludwig RF, McLaughlin DL, Wurster FC (2021) Red maple dominance and community homogenization in a disturbed forested wetland. Wetlands Ecol Manage 29(4):599–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-021-09808-6
MacDougall AD, Turkington R (2005) Are invasive species the drivers or passengers of change in degraded ecosystems? Ecology 46(1):42–55
Mack MC, D’Antonio CM (1998) Impacts of biological invasions on disturbance regimes. Trends Ecol Evol 13(5):165–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01286-X
Maheu-Giroux M, de Blois S (2006) Landscape ecology of phragmites australis invasion in networks of linear wetlands. Landscape Ecol 22(2):285–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-006-9024-z
Mal TK, Narine L (2003) The biology of Canadian Weeds. 129. Phragmites Australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud. Can J Plant Sci 84(1):365–396. https://doi.org/10.4141/p01-172
Marks M, Lapin B, Randall J (1994) Phragmites Australis (P. Communis): threats, management, and monitoring. Natural Areas J 14(4):285–294
Matlaga DP, Quintana-Ascencio PF, Menges ES, Pickert R (2010) Fire mediated edge effects in bayhead tree islands. J Veg Sci 21(1):190–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2009.01132.x
Mook JH, Van Der Toorn J (1982) The influence of environmental factors and management on stands of Phragmites Australis. Ii. Effects on yield and its relationships with shoot density. J Appl Ecol 19(2):501. https://doi.org/10.2307/2403482
Moran PAP (1950) Notes on continuous stochastic phenomena. Biometrika 37(1/2):17–23. https://doi.org/10.2307/2332142
Norris L, Perry JE, Havens KJ (2002) A summary of methods for controlling Phragmites Australis. Wetlands Program Technical Report No. 02–2
Ostendorp W (1999) Management impacts on stand structure of lakeshore phragmites reeds. Int Rev Hydrobiol 84(1):33–47
Page S, Hosciło A, Wösten H, Jauhiainen J, Silvius M, Rieley J, Ritzema H, Tansey K, Graham L, Vasander H, Limin S (2008) Restoration ecology of lowland tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia: current knowledge and future research directions. Ecosystems 12(6):888–905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-008-9216-2
Page SE, Baird AJ (2016) Peatlands and global change: response and resilience. Annu Rev Environ Resour 41(1):35–57. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085520
Páramo Pérez ME, Lindig Cisneros R, Moreno-Casasola P (2018) Invasion potential of Phragmites Australis in communities dominated by native species in the face of fire disturbances under controlled conditions. Hidrobiológica 28(2):201–207. https://doi.org/10.24275/uam/izt/dcbs/hidro/2018v28n2/Lindig
Parthum B, Pindilli E, Hogan D (2017) Benefits of the fire mitigation ecosystem service in the great dismal swamp national wildlife Refuge, Virginia, USA. J Environ Manage 203(Pt 1):375–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.08.018
Pereira JMC, Sá ACL, Sousa AMO, Silva JMN, Santos TN, Carreiras JMB (1999) Spectral characterisation and discrimination of burnt areas. Remote sensing of large wildfires. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, pp 123–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60164-4_7
Poulter B, Christensen NL, Halpin PN (2006) Carbon emissions from a temperate peat fire and its relevance to interannual variability of trace atmospheric greenhouse gases. J Geophys Res. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jd006455
R Core Team (2022) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. In: R foundation for statistical computing. http://www.R-project.org
Rea N (1996) Water levels andphragmites: decline from lack of regeneration or dieback from shoot death. Folia Geobot Phytotaxon 31(1):85–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02803997
Reddy AD, Hawbaker TJ, Wurster F, Zhu Z, Ward S, Newcomb D, Murray R (2015) Quantifying soil carbon loss and uncertainty from a peatland wildfire using multi-temporal lidar. Remote Sens Environ 170:306–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.09.017
Refaeilzadeh P, Tang L, Liu H (2016) Cross-Validation. In: Encyclopedia of database systems, pp 1–7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7993-3_565-2
Rein G (2015) Smoldering-peat megafires: the largest fires on earth. In: Stracher GB, Prakash A, Rein G (eds) Coal and peat fires: a global perspective, vol 4, pp 1–11 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59510-2.00001-X
Robichaud CD, Rooney RC (2017) Long-term effects of a phragmites australis invasion on birds in a Lake Erie Coastal Marsh. J Great Lakes Res 43(3):141–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2017.03.018
Rohal CB, Cranney C, Hazelton ELG, Kettenring KM (2019) Invasive phragmites australis management outcomes and native plant recovery are context dependent. Ecol Evol 9(24):13835–13849. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5820
Rolletschek H, Hartzendorf T, Rolletschek A, Kohl JG (1999) Biometric variation in Phragmites australis affecting convective ventilation and amino acid metabolism. Aquat Bot 64(3–4):291–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3770(99)00057-1
Shay JM, De Geus PMJ, Ka**a MRM (1999) Changes in shoreline vegetation over a 50-year period in the Delta Marsh, Manitoba in response to water levels. Wetlands 19(2):413–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03161773
Thompson DJ, Shay JM (1985) The effects of fire on Phragmites Australis in the Delta Marsh, Manitoba. Can J Bot. https://doi.org/10.1139/b85-261
Turetsky MR, Benscoter B, Page S, Rein G, van der Werf GR, Watts A (2014) Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss. Nat Geosci 8(1):11–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2325
Usup A, Hashimoto Y, Takahashi H, Hayasaka H (2004) Combustion and thermal characteristics of peat fire in tropical peatland in central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropics 14(1):1–19. https://doi.org/10.3759/tropics.14.1
Wails CN, Baker K, Blackburn R, Del Vallé A, Heise J, Herakovich H, Holthuijzen WA, Nissenbaum MP, Rankin L, Savage K, Vanek JP, Jones HP (2021) Assessing changes to ecosystem structure and function following invasion by Spartina alterniflora and Phragmites Australis: a meta-analysis. Biol Invasions 23(9):2695–2709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-021-02540-5
Ward P (1968) Fire in relation to waterfowl habitat of the delta marshes. In: Annual tall timbers fire ecology conference, Tallahassee, Fl, USA
Watts AC, Kobziar LN (2013) Smoldering combustion and ground fires: ecological effects and multi-scale significance. Fire Ecol 9(1):124–132. https://doi.org/10.4996/fireecology.0901124
Watts AC, Schmidt CA, McLaughlin DL, Kaplan DA (2015) Hydrologic implications of smoldering fires in wetland landscapes. Freshw Sci 34(4):1394–1405. https://doi.org/10.1086/683484
Weisner SEB, Graneli W, Ekstam B (1993) Influence of submergence on growth of seedlings of Scirpus lacustris and Phragmites Australis. Freshw Biol 29(3):371–375. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.1993.tb00771.x
Wilcox KL, Petrie SA, Maynard LA, Meyer SW (2003) Historical distribution and abundance of Phragmites australis at long point, lake Erie Ontario. J Great Lakes Res 29(4):664–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0380-1330(03)70469-9
Wu H, Huffer FRW (1997) Modelling the distribution of plant species using the autologistic regression model. Environ Ecol Stat 4(1):31–48. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1018553807765
Zedler JB, Kercher S (2004) Causes and consequences of invasive plants in wetlands: opportunities, opportunists, and outcomes. Crit Rev Plant Sci 23(5):431–452. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680490514673
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to the staff of the USFWS Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge for their help with well installation, site selection and data collection.
Funding
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, and the Edna Bailey Sussman Fund funded this work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
NTL, DLM, and FCW contributed to the study’s conception and design. Field data collection and well installation were done by NTL and FCW. Final data analysis was performed by NTL. Satellite imagery procurement, preprocessing, and initial set-up for random forest modeling was done by NB. The first draft of the manuscript was written by NTL and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final, submitted version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Link, N.T., McLaughlin, D.L., Bush, N. et al. Phragmites-fire feedbacks: the influence of fire and disturbance-altered hydrology on the abundance of Phragmites australis. Biol Invasions 26, 135–150 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-023-03163-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-023-03163-8