Abstract
The use of fossil fuels has been essential to the development of society, but has also contributed partly to global warming. For example, carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels and industries have increased by 60% since 1990, calling for the recycling of modern biomass in the context of a carbon neutral economy. Here we review the hydrothermal conversion of biomass into biofuels, chemicals and biomaterials with emphasis on subcritical water properties, hydrolysis of biomass, steam explosion, fractionation, carbonization, liquefaction, gasification, and fractionation of bio-oil. We observe that hydrothermal conversion of biomass in the presence of water at subcritical conditions produces value-added compounds with high process efficiency. Subcritical water allows rapid reaction rates, low mass transfer resistance, and gas-like diffusivity.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10311-024-01750-2/MediaObjects/10311_2024_1750_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10311-024-01750-2/MediaObjects/10311_2024_1750_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10311-024-01750-2/MediaObjects/10311_2024_1750_Fig3_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- %:
-
Percentage
- °C:
-
Degree Celsius
- Al2O3 :
-
Alumina
- CH4 :
-
Methane
- CO:
-
Carbon monoxide
- Co:
-
Cobalt
- CO2 :
-
Carbon dioxide
- Cu:
-
Copper
- h:
-
Hour
- H2 :
-
Hydrogen
- H2O:
-
Water
- H2SO4 :
-
Sulfuric acid
- H3O+ :
-
Hydronium ion
- K2CO3 :
-
Potassium carbonate
- kg/h:
-
Kilogram per hour
- kg/m3 :
-
Kilogram per cubic meter
- La:
-
Lanthanum
- M:
-
Molar
- min:
-
Minute
- mmol:
-
Millimole
- mmol/g:
-
Millimole per gram
- Mo:
-
Molybdenum
- mol/kg:
-
Mole per kilogram
- mol2/kg2 :
-
Mole square per kilogram square
- MPa:
-
Megapascal
- N2 :
-
Nitrogen
- NaOH:
-
Sodium hydroxide
- Ni:
-
Nickel
- O2 :
-
Oxygen
- OH– :
-
Hydroxide ion
- pH:
-
Potential of hydrogen
- Pt:
-
Platinum
- Re:
-
Rhenium
- Rh:
-
Rhodium
- Ru:
-
Ruthenium
- wt%:
-
Weight percentage
- γ-Al2O3 :
-
Gamma alumina
References
Abaide ER, Mortari SR, Ugalde G, Valério A, Amorim SM, Di Luccio M, de Moreira FPMR, Kuhn RC, Priamo WL, Tres MV (2019a) Subcritical water hydrolysis of rice straw in a semi-continuous mode. J Clean Prod 209:386–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.259
Abaide ER, Ugalde G, Di Luccio M, de Moreira FPMR, Tres MV, Zabot GL, Mazutti MA (2019b) Obtaining fermentable sugars and bioproducts from rice husks by subcritical water hydrolysis in a semi-continuous mode. Bioresour Technol 272:510–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2018.10.075
Abdullah R, Ueda K, Saka S (2014) Hydrothermal decomposition of various crystalline celluloses as treated by semi-flow hot-compressed water. J Wood Sci 60:278–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-014-1401-7
Ahmed B, Tyagi VK, Aboudi K, Naseem A, Álvarez-Gallego CJ, Fernández-Güelfo LA, Kazmi AA, Romero-García LI (2021) Thermally enhanced solubilization and anaerobic digestion of organic fraction of municipal solid waste. Chemosphere 282:131136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131136
Akalın MK, Tekin K, Karagöz S (2017) Supercritical fluid extraction of biofuels from biomass. Environ Chem Lett 15:29–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0593-z
Akizuki S, Suzuki H, Fujiwara M, Toda T (2023) Impacts of steam explosion pretreatment on semi-continuous anaerobic digestion of lignin-rich submerged macrophyte. J Clean Prod 385:135377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135377
Alherbawi M, Parthasarathy P, Al-Ansari T, Mackey HR, McKay G (2021) Potential of drop-in biofuel production from camel manure by hydrothermal liquefaction and biocrude upgrading: a Qatar case study. Energy 232:121027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.121027
Al-Kaabi Z, Pradhan R, Thevathasan N, Gordon A, Chiang YW, Dutta A (2019) Bio-carbon production by oxidation and hydrothermal carbonization of paper recycling black liquor. J Clean Prod 213:332–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.175
Azargohar R, Nanda S, Dalai AK, Kozinski JA (2019) Physico-chemistry of biochars produced through steam gasification and hydro-thermal gasification of canola hull and canola meal pellets. Biomass Bioenergy 120:458–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.12.011
Azargohar R, Nanda S, Borugadda VB, Cheng H, Bond T, Karunakaran C, Dalai AK (2022) Steam and supercritical water gasification of densified canola meal fuel pellets. Int J Hydrogen Energy 47:42013–42026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.09.134
Basar IA, Liu H, Carrere H, Trably E, Eskicioglu C (2021) A review on key design and operational parameters to optimize and develop hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass for biorefinery applications. Green Chem 23:1404–1446. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0gc04092d
Bassez M-P (2019) Follow the high subcritical water. Geosciences 9:249. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9060249
Beims RF, Hu Y, Shui H, Xu CC (2020) Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass to fuels and value-added chemicals: products applications and challenges to develop large-scale operations. Biomass Bioenergy 135:105510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2020.105510
Belete YZ, Mau V, Spitzer RY, Posmanik R, Jassby D, Iddya A, Kassem N, Tester JW, Gross A (2021) Hydrothermal carbonization of anaerobic digestate and manure from a dairy farm on energy recovery and the fate of nutrients. Bioresour Technol 333:125164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125164
Bonfiglio F, Cagno M, Yamakawa CK, Mussatto SI (2021) Production of xylitol and carotenoids from switchgrass and Eucalyptus globulus hydrolysates obtained by intensified steam explosion pretreatment. Ind Crops Prod 170:113800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113800
Brindhadevi K, Anto S, Rene ER, Sekar M, Mathimani T, Chi NTL, Pugazhendhi A (2021) Effect of reaction temperature on the conversion of algal biomass to bio-oil and biochar through pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction. Fuel 285:119106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119106
Cao Z, Hülsemann B, Wüst D, Illi L, Oechsner H, Kruse A (2020) Valorization of maize silage digestate from two-stage anaerobic digestion by hydrothermal carbonization. Energy Convers Manag 222:113218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113218
Castello D, Haider MS, Rosendahl LA (2019) Catalytic upgrading of hydrothermal liquefaction biocrudes: different challenges for different feedstocks. Renew Energy 141:420–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.04.003
Chen J, Wang Q, Xu Z, Jiaqiang E, Leng E, Zhang F, Liao G (2021a) Process in supercritical water gasification of coal: a review of fundamentals, mechanisms, catalysts and element transformation. Energy Convers Manag 237:114122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114122
Chen J, Wang X, Zhang B, Yang Y, Song Y, Zhang F, Liu B, Zhou Y, Yi Y, Shan Y (2021b) Integrating enzymatic hydrolysis into subcritical water pretreatment optimization for bioethanol production from wheat straw. Sci Total Environ 770:145321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145321
Chen W-H, Nižetić S, Sirohi R, Huang Z, Luque R, Papadopoulos AM, Sakthivel R, Nguyen XP, Hoang AT (2022a) Liquid hot water as sustainable biomass pretreatment technique for bioenergy production: a review. Bioresour Technol 344:126207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126207
Chen Z, Zheng Z, He C, Liu J, Zhang R, Chen Q (2022b) Oily sludge treatment in subcritical and supercritical water: a review. J Hazard Mater 433:128761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128761
Cheng J, Huang R, Yu T, Li T, Zhou J, Cen K (2014) Biodiesel production from lipids in wet microalgae with microwave irradiation and bio-crude production from algal residue through hydrothermal liquefaction. Bioresour Technol 151:415–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.10.033
Chiarello LM, Ramos CEA, Neves PV, Ramos LP (2016) Production of cellulosic ethanol from steam-exploded Eucalyptus urograndis and sugarcane bagasse at high total solids and low enzyme loadings. Sustain Chem Process 4:15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40508-016-0059-4
Correa CR, Kruse A (2018) Supercritical water gasification of biomass for hydrogen production–Review. J Supercrit Fluids 133:573–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.09.019
Cuijpers M, Boot M, Golombok M (2018) Enhanced viscosity reduction in heavy oils by subcritical water. J Petrol Explor Prod Technol 8:291–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-017-0370-y
Czerwińska K, Śliz M, Wilk M (2022) Hydrothermal carbonization process: fundamentals, main parameter characteristics and possible applications including an effective method of SARS-CoV-2 mitigation in sewage sludge. A Review Renew Sustain Energy Rev 154:111873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111873
D’Orsi R, Di Fidio N, Antonetti C, Raspolli Galletti AM, Operamolla A (2023) Isolation of pure lignin and highly digestible cellulose from defatted and steam-exploded Cynara cardunculus. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 11:1875–1887. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c06356
Dabros TMH, Gaur A, Pintos DG, Sprenger P, Høj M, Hansen TW, Studt F, Gabrielsen J, Grunwaldt J-D, Jensen AD (2018) Influence of H2O and H2S on the composition, activity, and stability of sulfided Mo, CoMo, and NiMo supported on MgAl2O4 for hydrodeoxygenation of ethylene glycol. Appl Catal a: Gen 551:106–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2017.12.008
Das P, AbdulQuadir M, Thaher M, Khan S, Chaudhary AK, Al-Jabri H (2020) A feasibility study of utilizing hydrothermal liquefaction derived aqueous phase as nutrients for semi-continuous cultivation of Tetraselmis sp. Bioresour Technol 295:122310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122310
Das N, Jena PK, Padhi D, Kumar Mohanty M, Sahoo G (2023) A comprehensive review of characterization, pretreatment and its applications on different lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol production. Biomass Conv Bioref 13:1503–1527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-01294-3
Deng C, Lin R, Kang X, Wu B, Ning X, Wall D, Murphy JD (2022) Co-production of hydrochar, levulinic acid and value-added chemicals by microwave-assisted hydrothermal carbonization of seaweed. Chem Eng J 441:135915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.135915
Dhaouadi F, Sellaoui L, Hernández-Hernández LE, Bonilla-Petriciolet A, Mendoza-Castillo DI, Reynel-Ávila HE, González-Ponce HA, Taamalli S, Louis F, Lamine AB (2021) Preparation of an avocado seed hydrochar and its application as heavy metal adsorbent: properties and advanced statistical physics modeling. Chem Eng J 419:129472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.129472
Di Fraia A, Miliotti E, Rizzo AM, Zoppi G, Pipitone G, Pirone R, Rosi L, Chiaramonti D, Bensaid S (2023) Coupling hydrothermal liquefaction and aqueous phase reforming for integrated production of biocrude and renewable H2. AIChE J 69:17652. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.17652
dos Passos JS, Matayeva A, Biller P (2022) Synergies during hydrothermal liquefaction of cow manure and wheat straw. J Environ Chem Eng 10:108181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.108181
dos Passos JS, Straka P, Auersvald M, Biller P (2023) Upgrading of hydrothermal liquefaction biocrudes from mono-and co-liquefaction of cow manure and wheat straw through hydrotreating and distillation. Chem Eng J 452:139636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.139636
Duan P, Xu Y, Bai X (2013) Upgrading of crude duckweed bio-oil in subcritical water. Energy Fuels 27:4729–4738. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef4009168
Duangwang S, Ruengpeerakul T, Cheirsilp B, Yamsaengsung R, Sangwichien C (2016) Pilot-scale steam explosion for xylose production from oil palm empty fruit bunches and the use of xylose for ethanol production. Bioresour Technol 203:252–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.12.065
Dutta N, Usman M, Ashraf MA, Luo G, Gamal El-Din M, Zhang S (2023) Methods to convert lignocellulosic waste into biohydrogen, biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel and value-added chemicals: a review. Environ Chem Lett 21:803–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01511-z
Elgarahy AM, Eloffy M, Hammad A, Saber AN, El-Sherif DM, Mohsen A, Abouzid M, Elwakeel KZ (2022) Hydrogen production from wastewater, storage, economy, governance and applications: a review. Environ Chem Lett 20:3453–3504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01480-3
Escalante J, Chen W-H, Tabatabaei M, Hoang AT, Kwon EE, Andrew Lin K-Y, Saravanakumar A (2022) Pyrolysis of lignocellulosic, algal, plastic, and other biomass wastes for biofuel production and circular bioeconomy: a review of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) approach. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 169:112914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112914
Farobie O, Syaftika N, Masfuri I, Rini TP, Es DPL, Bayu A, Amrullah A, Hartulistiyoso E, Moheimani NR, Karnjanakom S (2022) Green algae to green fuels: syngas and hydrochar production from Ulva lactuca via sub-critical water gasification. Algal Res 67:102834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2022.102834
Fernández MA, Rissanen J, Nebreda AP, Xu C, Willför S, Serna JG, Salmi T, Grenman H (2018) Hemicelluloses from stone pine, holm oak, and Norway spruce with subcritical water extraction− comparative study with characterization and kinetics. J Supercrit Fluids 133:647–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.07.001
Fernández-Sanromán Á, Lama G, Pazos M, Rosales E, Sanromán MÁ (2020) Bridging the gap to hydrochar production and its application into frameworks of bioenergy, environmental and biocatalysis areas. Bioresour Technol 320:124399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124399
Gai C, Zhang F, Yang T, Liu Z, Jiao W, Peng N, Liu T, Lang Q, **a Y (2018) Hydrochar supported bimetallic Ni–Fe nanocatalysts with tailored composition, size and shape for improved biomass steam reforming performance. Green Chem 20:2788–2800. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8gc00433a
Goto M, Obuchi R, Hirose T, Sakaki T, Shibata M (2004) Hydrothermal conversion of municipal organic waste into resources. Bioresour Technol 93:279–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2003.11.017
Halim NAA, Abidin ZZ, Siajam SI, Hean CG, Harun MR (2021) Optimization studies and compositional analysis of subcritical water extraction of essential oil from Citrus hystrix DC. leaves. J Supercrit Fluids 178:105384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2021.105384
Hantoro R, Septyaningrum E, Siswanto BB, Izdiharrudin MF (2020) Hydrochar production through the HTC process: case study of municipal solid waste samples in East Java, Indonesia. Solid Fuel Chem 54:418–426. https://doi.org/10.3103/S036152192006004X
Hao B, Xu D, Jiang G, Sabri TA, **g Z, Guo Y (2021) Chemical reactions in the hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass and in the catalytic hydrogenation upgrading of biocrude. Green Chem 23:1562–1583. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0gc02893b
Harisankar S, Vinu R (2023) Comprehensive evaluation of municipal solid wastes and mixed feedstocks for commercial hydrothermal liquefaction in bio-refineries. Fuel 339:127236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.127236
Harisankar S, Francis Prashanth P, Nallasivam J, Vishnu Mohan R, Vinu R (2021) Effects of aqueous phase recirculation on product yields and quality from hydrothermal liquefaction of rice straw. Bioresour Technol 342:125951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125951
Hasanoğlu A, Faki E, Seçer A, Türker Üzden Ş (2023) Co–solvent effects on hydrothermal co–gasification of coal/biomass mixtures for hydrogen production. Fuel 331:125693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.125693
Inseemeesak B, Areeprasert C (2020) Fiber extraction and energy recovery from Cocos nucifera Linn mesocarp residues employing steam explosion and anaerobic digestion. Ind Crops Prod 147:112180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112180
Jha S, Okolie JA, Nanda S, Dalai AK (2022) A review of biomass resources and thermochemical conversion technologies. Chem Eng Technol 45:791–799. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.202100503
Kaldis F, Cysneiros D, Day J, Karatzas GK-A, Chatzifragkou A (2020) Anaerobic digestion of steam-exploded wheat straw and co-digestion strategies for enhanced biogas production. Appl Sci 10:8284
Kang K, Nanda S, Sun G, Qiu L, Gu Y, Zhang T, Zhu M, Sun R (2019) Microwave-assisted hydrothermal carbonization of corn stalk for solid biofuel production: optimization of process parameters and characterization of hydrochar. Energy 186:115795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.07.125
Kang K, Nanda S, Hu Y (2022) Current trends in biochar application for catalytic conversion of biomass to biofuels. Catal Today 404:3–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2022.06.033
Karlson B, Bellavitis C, France N (2021) Commercializing LanzaTech, from waste to fuel: an effectuation case. J Manag Organ 27:175–196. https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2017.83
Khan TA, Saud AS, Jamari SS, Ab Rahim MH, Park J-W, Kim H-J (2019) Hydrothermal carbonization of lignocellulosic biomass for carbon rich material preparation: a review. Biomass Bioenergy 130:105384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2019.105384
Khandelwal K, Dalai AK (2023) Integration of hydrothermal gasification with biorefinery processes for efficient production of biofuels and biochemicals. Int J Hydrogen Energy 49:577–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.10.337
Khandelwal K, Boahene P, Nanda S, Dalai AK (2023a) Hydrogen production from supercritical water gasification of model compounds of crude glycerol from biodiesel industries. Energies 16:3746. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093746
Khandelwal K, Boahene P, Nanda S, Dalai AK (2023b) A review of the design and performance of catalysts for hydrothermal gasification of biomass to produce hydrogen-rich gas fuel. Molecules 28:5137. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135137
Khandelwal K, Nanda S, Boahene P, Dalai AK (2023c) Conversion of biomass into hydrogen by supercritical water gasification: a review. Environ Chem Lett 21:2619–2638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01624-z
Khorasani R, Khodaparasti MS, Tavakoli O (2021) Hydrogen production from dairy wastewater using catalytic supercritical water gasification: mechanism and reaction pathway. Int J Hydrogen Energy 46:22368–22384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.04.089
Kohansal K, Toor S, Sharma K, Chand R, Rosendahl L, Pedersen TH (2021) Hydrothermal liquefaction of pre-treated municipal solid waste (biopulp) with recirculation of concentrated aqueous phase. Biomass Bioenergy 148:106032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106032
Lam PS, Lam PY, Sokhansanj S, Lim CJ, Bi XT, Stephen JD, Pribowo A, Mabee WE (2015) Steam explosion of oil palm residues for the production of durable pellets. Appl Energy 141:160–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.12.029
Langone M, Sabia G, Petta L, Zanetti L, Leoni P, Basso D (2021) Evaluation of the aerobic biodegradability of process water produced by hydrothermal carbonization and inhibition effects on the heterotrophic biomass of an activated sludge system. J Environ Manag 299:113561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113561
Lin H, Li Q, Zhang L, Zhang S, Hu X (2022) Hydrothermal carbonization of sawdust with the bio-oil of same origin impacts evolution of structures of hydrochar. Fuel Process Technol 238:107516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2022.107516
Liu S, Yang Y, Yu L, Li X (2021) Thermodynamic and environmental analysis of solar-driven supercritical water gasification of algae for ammonia synthesis and power production. Energy Convers Manag 243:114409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114409
Liu L-Y, Chandra RP, Tang Y, Huang X-Y, Bai F-W, Liu C-G (2022a) Instant catapult steam explosion: an efficient preprocessing step for the robust and cost-effective chemical pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Ind Crops Prod 188:115664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115664
Liu Y, Fu H, Zhang W, Liu H (2022b) Effect of crystalline structure on the catalytic hydrolysis of cellulose in subcritical water. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 10:5859–5866. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c08703
Liu Y, Wu S, Zhang H, **ao R (2022c) Catalytic fast pyrolysis of steam-exploded biomass for long-chain ethers precursors. Fuel Process Technol 235:107367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2022.107367
Liu H, Lyczko N, Nzihou A, Eskicioglu C (2023) Incorporating hydrothermal liquefaction into wastewater treatment–Part II: Characterization, environmental impacts, and potential applications of hydrochar. J Clean Prod 383:135398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135398
Løhre C, Underhaug J, Brusletto R, Barth T (2021) A workup protocol combined with direct application of quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of aqueous samples from large-scale steam explosion of biomass. ACS Omega 6:6714–6721. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c05642
Lu B, Ge Z, Chen Y, Shi J, ** H (2022) Study on supercritical water gasification reaction and kinetic of coal model compounds. Fuel Process Technol 230:107210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2022.107210
Ma C, Ni L, Guo Z, Zeng H, Wu M, Zhang M, Zheng B (2022) Principle and application of steam explosion technology in modification of food fiber. Foods 11:3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11213370
Maciel-Silva FW, Mussatto SI, Forster-Carneiro T (2019) Integration of subcritical water pretreatment and anaerobic digestion technologies for valorization of açai processing industries residues. J Clean Prod 228:1131–1142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.362
Marin-Batista J, Villamil J, Qaramaleki S, Coronella C, Mohedano A, de La Rubia M (2020) Energy valorization of cow manure by hydrothermal carbonization and anaerobic digestion. Renew Energy 160:623–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.07.003
Martinez CLM, Sermyagina E, Saari J, de Jesus MS, Cardoso M, de Almeida GM, Vakkilainen E (2021) Hydrothermal carbonization of lignocellulosic agro-forest based biomass residues. Biomass Bioenergy 147:106004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106004
Masoumi S, Boahene PE, Dalai AK (2021) Biocrude oil and hydrochar production and characterization obtained from hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae in methanol-water system. Energy 217:119344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.119344
Mokomele T, da Costa SL, Balan V, van Rensburg E, Dale BE, Görgens JF (2019) Incorporating anaerobic co-digestion of steam exploded or ammonia fiber expansion pretreated sugarcane residues with manure into a sugarcane-based bioenergy-livestock nexus. Bioresour Technol 272:326–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2018.10.049
Monschein M, Nidetzky B (2016) Effect of pretreatment severity in continuous steam explosion on enzymatic conversion of wheat straw: evidence from kinetic analysis of hydrolysis time courses. Bioresour Technol 200:287–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.10.020
Muangrat R, Onwudili JA, Williams PT (2011) Alkaline subcritical water gasification of dairy industry waste (Whey). Bioresour Technol 102:6331–6335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.02.056
Murillo HA, Díaz-Robles LA, Santander RE, Cubillos FA (2021) Conversion of residual oat husk and pine sawdust by co-hydrothermal carbonization towards biofuel production for pellet stoves. Ind Crops Prod 174:114219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.114219
Nanda S, Berruti F (2021a) Municipal solid waste management and landfilling technologies: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19:1433–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01100-y
Nanda S, Berruti F (2021b) Thermochemical conversion of plastic waste to fuels: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19:123–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01094-7
Nanda S, Reddy SN, Hunter HN, Butler IS, Kozinski JA (2015) Supercritical water gasification of lactose as a model compound for valorization of dairy industry effluents. Ind Eng Chem Res 54:9296–9306. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.5b02603
Nanda S, Reddy SN, Dalai AK, Kozinski JA (2016) Subcritical and supercritical water gasification of lignocellulosic biomass impregnated with nickel nanocatalyst for hydrogen production. Int J Hydrogen Energy 41:4907–4921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.10.060
Nanda S, Gong M, Hunter HN, Dalai AK, Gökalp I, Kozinski JA (2017) An assessment of pinecone gasification in subcritical, near-critical and supercritical water. Fuel Process Technol 168:84–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2017.08.017
Nanda S, Rana R, Hunter HN, Fang Z, Dalai AK, Kozinski JA (2019a) Hydrothermal catalytic processing of waste cooking oil for hydrogen-rich syngas production. Chem Eng Sci 195:935–945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2018.10.039
Nanda S, Reddy SN, Hunter HN, Vo D-VN, Kozinski JA, Gökalp I (2019b) Catalytic subcritical and supercritical water gasification as a resource recovery approach from waste tires for hydrogen-rich syngas production. J Supercrit Fluids 154:104627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2019.104627
Nanda S, Patra BR, Patel R, Bakos J, Dalai AK (2022) Innovations in applications and prospects of bioplastics and biopolymers: a review. Environ Chem Lett 20:379–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01334-4
Nanda S, Pattnaik P, Patra BR, Kang K, Dalai AK (2023) A review of liquid and gaseous biofuels from advanced microbial fermentation processes. Fermentation 9:813. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090813
Nguyen DT, Nguyen VH, Nanda S, Vo DVN, Nguyen VH, Tran TV, Nong LX, Nguyen TT, Bach LG, Abdullah B, Hong SS, Nguyen TV (2020) BiVO4 photocatalysis design and applications to oxygen production and degradation of organic compounds: a review. Environ Chem Lett 18:1779–1801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01039-0
Okolie JA, Rana R, Nanda S, Dalai AK, Kozinski JA (2019) Supercritical water gasification of biomass: a state-of-the-art review of process parameters, reaction mechanisms and catalysis. Sustain Energy Fuels 3:578–598. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8SE00565F
Okolie JA, Nanda S, Dalai AK, Berruti F, Kozinski JA (2020) A review on subcritical and supercritical water gasification of biogenic, polymeric and petroleum wastes to hydrogen-rich synthesis gas. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 119:109546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109546
Oliveira AS, Sarrión A, Baeza JA, Diaz E, Calvo L, Mohedano AF, Gilarranz MA (2022) Integration of hydrothermal carbonization and aqueous phase reforming for energy recovery from sewage sludge. Chem Eng J 442:136301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.136301
Osman AI, Mehta N, Elgarahy AM, Al-Hinai A, Al-Muhtaseb AH, Rooney DW (2021) Conversion of biomass to biofuels and life cycle assessment: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19:4075–4118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01273-0
Osman AI, Farghali M, Ihara I, Elgarahy AM, Ayyad A, Mehta N, Ng KH, Abd El-Monaem EM, Eltaweil AS, Hosny M (2023a) Materials, fuels, upgrading, economy, and life cycle assessment of the pyrolysis of algal and lignocellulosic biomass: a review. Environ Chem Lett 21:1419–1476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01573-7
Osman AI, Lai ZY, Farghali M, Yiin CL, Elgarahy AM, Hammad A, Ihara I, Al-Fatesh AS, Rooney DW, Yap P-S (2023b) Optimizing biomass pathways to bioenergy and biochar application in electricity generation, biodiesel production, and biohydrogen production. Environ Chem Lett 21:2639–2705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01613-2
Our World in Data. Greenhouse gas emissions. https://ourworldindata.org/greenhouse-gas-emissions (accessed on May 1, 2024)
Padilla-Rascón C, Ruiz E, Romero I, Castro E, Oliva J, Ballesteros I, Manzanares P (2020) Valorisation of olive stone by-product for sugar production using a sequential acid/steam explosion pretreatment. Ind Crops Prod 148:112279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112279
Panwar NL, Paul AS (2021) An overview of recent development in bio-oil upgrading and separation techniques. Environ Eng Res 26:200382. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2020.382
Patra BR, Mukherjee A, Nanda S, Dalai AK (2021) Biochar production, activation and adsorptive applications: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19:2237–2259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01165-9
Pattnaik F, Tripathi S, Patra BR, Nanda S, Kumar V, Dalai AK, Naik S (2021) Catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic polysaccharides to commodity biochemicals: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19:4119–4136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01284-x
Pawlak-Kruczek H, Niedzwiecki L, Sieradzka M, Mlonka-Mędrala A, Baranowski M, Serafin-Tkaczuk M, Magdziarz A (2020) Hydrothermal carbonization of agricultural and municipal solid waste digestates–Structure and energetic properties of the solid products. Fuel 275:117837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117837
Pongsiriyakul K, Kiatkittipong W, Adhikari S, Lim JW, Lam SS, Kiatkittipong K, Dankeaw A, Reubroycharoen P, Laosiripojana N, Faungnawakij K (2021) Effective Cu/Re promoted Ni-supported γ-Al2O3 catalyst for upgrading algae bio-crude oil produced by hydrothermal liquefaction. Fuel Process Technol 216:106670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2020.106670
Poravou CA, Tsongidis NI, Lekkos C, Zacharopoulou VA, Konstandopoulos AG (2022) Valorization of plastic waste: a lab-scale approach with the aid of solar hydrothermal liquefaction technology. Waste Biomass Valori 13:3835–3844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-022-01837-3
Qu L, Jiang X, Zhang Z, Zhang X-G, Song G-Y, Wang H-l, Yuan Y-P, Chang Y-l (2021) A review of hydrodeoxygenation of bio-oil: model compounds, catalysts, and equipment. Green Chem 23:9348–9376. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1GC03183J
Rahbari A, Shirazi A, Venkataraman MB, Pye J (2019) A solar fuel plant via supercritical water gasification integrated with Fischer-Tropsch synthesis: steady-state modelling and techno-economic assessment. Energy Convers Manag 184:636–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.01.033
Raheem A, He Q, Ding L, Dastyar W, Yu G (2022) Evaluating performance of pyrolysis and gasification processes of agriculture residues-derived hydrochar: effect of hydrothermal carbonization. J Clean Prod 338:130578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130578
Rahman T, Jahromi H, Roy P, Adhikari S, Hassani E, Oh T-S (2021) Hydrothermal liquefaction of municipal sewage sludge: effect of red mud catalyst in ethylene and inert ambiences. Energy Convers Manag 245:114615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114615
Remón J, Arauzo J, García L, Arcelus-Arrillaga P, Millan M, Suelves I, Pinilla J (2016) Bio-oil upgrading in supercritical water using Ni-Co catalysts supported on carbon nanofibres. Fuel Process Technol 154:178–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.08.030
Roy P, Jahromi H, Rahman T, Adhikari S, Feyzbar-Khalkhali-Nejad F, Oh T-S (2022) Understanding the effects of feedstock blending and catalyst support on hydrotreatment of algae HTL biocrude with non-edible vegetable oil. Energy Convers Manag 268:115998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115998
Ruiz HA, Galbe M, Garrote G, Ramirez-Gutierrez DM, **menes E, Sun S-N, Lachos-Perez D, Rodríguez-Jasso RM, Sun R-C, Yang B (2021) Severity factor kinetic model as a strategic parameter of hydrothermal processing (steam explosion and liquid hot water) for biomass fractionation under biorefinery concept. Bioresour Technol 342:125961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125961
Safari F, Javani N, Yumurtaci Z (2018) Hydrogen production via supercritical water gasification of almond shell over algal and agricultural catalysts. Int J Hydrogen Energy 43:1071–1080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.05.102
Saqib NU, Sharma HB, Baroutian S, Dubey B, Sarmah AK (2019) Valorisation of food waste via hydrothermal carbonisation and techno-economic feasibility assessment. Sci Total Environ 690:261–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.484
Sarker TR, Pattnaik F, Nanda S, Dalai AK, Meda V, Naik S (2021) Hydrothermal pretreatment technologies for lignocellulosic biomass: a review of steam explosion and subcritical water hydrolysis. Chemosphere 284:131372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131372
Sarker TR, Nanda S, Meda V, Dalai AK (2023) Densification of waste biomass for manufacturing solid biofuel pellets: a review. Environ Chem Lett 21:231–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01510-0
Seif S, Tavakoli O, Fatemi S, Bahmanyar H (2015) Subcritical water gasification of beet-based distillery wastewater for hydrogen production. J Supercrit Fluids 104:212–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2015.06.014
Selvakumar P, Karthik V, Senthil KP, Beula IJ, Tatek T, Hunegnaw B, Melese B, Mohamed BA, Nguyen VD-V (2022) Chemical, physical and biological methods to convert lignocellulosic waste into value-added products. A review. Environ Chem Lett 20:1129–1152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01374-w
Seraj S, Azargohar R, Borugadda VB, Dalai AK (2023a) Energy recovery from agro-forest wastes through hydrothermal carbonization coupled with hydrothermal co-gasification: effects of succinic acid on hydrochars and H2 production. Chemosphere 337:139390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139390
Seraj S, Azargohar R, Dalai AK (2023b) Hydrothermal carbonization of sawmill shavings for fuel pellet production: a robust strategy for sustainable energy. J Clean Prod 418:138120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138120
Shahrukh H, Oyedun AO, Kumar A, Ghiasi B, Kumar L, Sokhansanj S (2016) Comparative net energy ratio analysis of pellet produced from steam pretreated biomass from agricultural residues and energy crops. Biomass Bioenergy 90:50–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.03.022
Shakya R, Adhikari S, Mahadevan R, Dempster TA (2018) Catalytic upgrading of bio-oil produced from hydrothermal liquefaction of Nannochloropsis sp. Bioresour Technol 252:28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.12.067
Shan Y-Q, Xu Z-X, Duan P-G, Fan H-L, Hu X, Luque R (2020) Nitrogen-and sulfur-doped carbon obtained from direct hydrothermal carbonization of cellulose and ammonium sulfate for supercapacitor applications. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 8:15809–15814. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c05520
Shan Y-Q, Yin L-X, Djandja OS, Wang Z-C, Duan P-G (2021) Supercritical water gasification of waste water produced from hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae over Ru catalyst for production of H2 rich gas fuel. Fuel 292:120288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120288
Shang G, Zhang C, Wang F, Qiu L, Guo X, Xu F (2019) Liquid hot water pretreatment to enhance the anaerobic digestion of wheat straw—effects of temperature and retention time. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:29424–29434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06111-z
Sharma HB, Panigrahi S, Dubey BK (2019) Hydrothermal carbonization of yard waste for solid bio-fuel production: Study on combustion kinetic, energy properties, grindability and flowability of hydrochar. Waste Manag 91:108–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.056
Sharma HB, Sarmah AK, Dubey B (2020) Hydrothermal carbonization of renewable waste biomass for solid biofuel production: a discussion on process mechanism, the influence of process parameters, environmental performance and fuel properties of hydrochar. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 123:109761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109761
Simangunsong E, Ziegler-Devin I, Chrusciel L, Girods P, Wistara N, Brosse N (2020) Steam explosion of beech wood: effect of the particle size on the xylans recovery. Waste Biomass Valor 11:625–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-018-0522-4
Singh R, Liu H, Shanklin J, Singh V (2021) Hydrothermal pretreatment for valorization of genetically engineered bioenergy crop for lipid and cellulosic sugar recovery. Bioresour Technol 341:125817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125817
Srivastava RK, Shetti NP, Reddy KR, Aminabhavi TM (2020) Biofuels, biodiesel and biohydrogen production using bioprocesses. A Review Environ Chem Lett 18:1049–1072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-00999-7
Statista. Annual carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions worldwide from 1940 to 2023. https://ourworldindata.org/greenhouse-gas-emissions (accessed on May 1, 2024)
Štefanko D, Rusková R, Jelemenský Ľ (2020) Kinetic models of simple alcohols SCWG. Chem Pap 74:333–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-019-00935-2
Su H, Hantoko D, Yan M, Cai Y, Kanchanatip E, Liu J, Zhou X, Zhang S (2019) Evaluation of catalytic subcritical water gasification of food waste for hydrogen production: effect of process conditions and different types of catalyst loading. Int J Hydrogen Energy 44:21451–21463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.06.203
Su H, Kanchanatip E, Wang D, Zhang H, Mubeen I, Huang Z, Yan M (2020) Catalytic gasification of food waste in supercritical water over La promoted Ni/Al2O3 catalysts for enhancing H2 production. Int J Hydrogen Energy 45:553–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.10.219
Sun J, Xu L, Dong G-h, Nanda S, Li H, Fang Z, Kozinski JA, Dalai AK (2020) Subcritical water gasification of lignocellulosic wastes for hydrogen production with Co modified Ni/Al2O3 catalysts. J Supercrit Fluids 162:104863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2020.104863
SundarRajan P, Gopinath K, Arun J, GracePavithra K, Joseph AA, Manasa S (2021) Insights into valuing the aqueous phase derived from hydrothermal liquefaction. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 144:111019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111019
Suriyachai N, Weerasai K, Upajak S, Khongchamnan P, Wanmolee W, Laosiripojana N, Champreda V, Suwannahong K, Imman S (2020) Efficiency of catalytic liquid hot water pretreatment for conversion of corn stover to bioethanol. ACS Omega 5:29872–29881. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c04054
Tareen AK, Sultan IN, Songprom K, Laemsak N, Sirisansaneeyakul S, Vanichsriratana W, Parakulsuksatid P (2021) Two-step pretreatment of oil palm trunk for ethanol production by thermotolerent Saccharomyces cerevisiae SC90. Bioresour Technol 320:124298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124298
Teimouri Z, Nanda S, Abatzoglou N, Dalai AK (2024) Application of activated carbon in renewable energy conversion and storage systems: a review. Environ Chem Lett 22:1073–1092. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01690-3
Torres-Mayanga P, Azambuja S, Tyufekchiev M, Tompsett G, Timko M, Goldbeck R, Rostagno M, Forster-Carneiro T (2019) Subcritical water hydrolysis of brewer’s spent grains: Selective production of hemicellulosic sugars (C-5 sugars). J Supercrit Fluids 145:19–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2018.11.019
van der Westhuizen L, Diedericks D, Akdogan G, Görgens JF (2023) Optimizing the mechanical properties of coal-fines briquettes produced with steam-exploded sugarcane bagasse as a binder. Int J Coal Prep Util 44:170–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392699.2023.2179041
Venkataraman MB, Rahbari A, van Eyk P, Weimer AW, Lipiński W, Pye J (2021) Liquid fuel production via supercritical water gasification of algae: a role for solar heat integration? Sustain Energy Fuels 5:6269–6297. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1se01615f
Vimali E, Gunaseelan S, Devi VC, Mothil S, Arumugam M, Ashokkumar B, Moorthy IMG, Pugazhendhi A, Varalakshmi P (2022) Comparative study of different catalysts mediated FAME conversion from macroalga Padina tetrastromatica biomass and hydrothermal liquefaction facilitated bio-oil production. Chemosphere 292:133485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133485
Wang Z, Zhai Y, Wang T, Wang B, Peng C, Li C (2020) Pelletizing of hydrochar biofuels with organic binders. Fuel 280:118659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118659
Wang Z, An C, Lee K, Owens E, Chen Z, Boufadel M, Taylor E, Feng Q (2021a) Factors influencing the fate of oil spilled on shorelines: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19:1611–1628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01097-4
Wang Z, Watson J, Wang T, Yi S, Si B, Zhang Y (2021b) Enhancing energy recovery via two stage co-fermentation of hydrothermal liquefaction aqueous phase and crude glycerol. Energy Convers Manag 231:113855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.113855
Wei J, Zhang H, Zhai S, Ren H, Zhai H (2023) Effect and control of energy input on tissue and cell dissociation and chemical depolymerization in pure subcritical water autohydrolysis of naked oat stem. Green Chem 25:5968–5978. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3GC01514A
Wilk M, Magdziarz A, Jayaraman K, Szymańska-Chargot M, Gökalp I (2019) Hydrothermal carbonization characteristics of sewage sludge and lignocellulosic biomass. A Comparative Study Biomass Bioenergy 120:166–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.11.016
**ao K, Liu H, Li Y, Yang G, Wang Y, Yao H (2020) Excellent performance of porous carbon from urea-assisted hydrochar of orange peel for toluene and iodine adsorption. Chem Eng J 382:122997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.122997
**e D, Huang J, Wang Z, Hu W, Liu C, Wang D, Li X, Qiao Y (2023) Activated carbon derived from hydrochar of food waste for supercapacitor: effect of components on electrochemical performance. Fuel Process Technol 244:107691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2023.107691
Xu D, Liu L, Wei N, Guo Y, Wang S, Wu Z, Duan P (2019) Catalytic supercritical water gasification of aqueous phase directly derived from microalgae hydrothermal liquefaction. Int J Hydrogen Energy 44:26181–26192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.08.106
Yan M, Liu J, Yoshikawa K, Jiang J, Zhang Y, Zhu G, Liu Y, Hantoko D (2022) Cascading disposal for food waste by integration of hydrothermal carbonization and supercritical water gasification. Renew Energy 186:914–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.01.049
Yang C, Wang S, Jiang Z, Li J, He C, Xu T, Xu D (2022) Catalytic hydrotreatment upgrading of biocrude oil derived from hydrothermal liquefaction of animal carcass. Fuel 317:123528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123528
Yang L, Lu C, Gao Y, Lin Y, Xu J, Xu H, Zhang X, Wang M, Zhao Y, Yu C (2023) Hydrogen-rich gas production from the gasification of biomass and hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) aqueous phase. Biomass Conv Bioref 13:1529–1538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-020-01197-9
Yedro FM, Grénman H, Rissanen JV, Salmi T, García-Serna J, Cocero MJ (2017) Chemical composition and extraction kinetics of Holm oak (Quercus ilex) hemicelluloses using subcritical water. J Supercrit Fluids 129:56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.01.016
Youssef EA, Nakhla G, Charpentier PA (2011) Oleic acid gasification over supported metal catalysts in supercritical water: hydrogen production and product distribution. Int J Hydrogen Energy 36:4830–4842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.01.116
Yu J, Guo Q, Gong Y, Ding L, Wang J, Yu G (2021) A review of the effects of alkali and alkaline earth metal species on biomass gasification. Fuel Process Technol 214:106723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2021.106723
Yuan C, Wang S, Cao B, Hu Y, Abomohra AE-F, Wang Q, Qian L, Liu L, Liu X, He Z (2019) Optimization of hydrothermal co-liquefaction of seaweeds with lignocellulosic biomass: merging 2nd and 3rd generation feedstocks for enhanced bio-oil production. Energy 173:413–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.02.091
Zeng M, Ge Z, Ma Y, Zha Z, Wu Y, Zhang H (2022) (Co-) gasification characteristics and synergistic effect of hydrothermal carbonized solid/liquid products derived from fresh kitchen waste. Waste Manag 154:74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.09.029
Zhang C, Duan P, Xu Y, Wang B, Wang F, Zhang L (2014) Catalytic upgrading of duckweed biocrude in subcritical water. Bioresour Technol 166:37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.05.022
Zhang Z, Zhu Z, Shen B, Liu L (2019) Insights into biochar and hydrochar production and applications: a review. Energy 171:581–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.01.035
Zhang J, Wen C, Zhang H, Duan Y, Ma H (2020) Recent advances in the extraction of bioactive compounds with subcritical water: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 95:183–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.11.018
Zhang B, Li H, Chen L, Fu T, Tang B, Hao Y, Li J, Li Z, Zhang B, Chen Q (2022a) Recent advances in the bioconversion of waste straw biomass with steam explosion technique: a comprehensive review. Processes 10:1959. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10101959
Zhang C, Wang X, Shao M, Li H, Chen Q, Wang N, Xu Q (2022b) Synthesis of nitrogen-enriched hydrochar via co-hydrothermal reaction of liquid digestate and corn stalk. Sci Total Environ 836:155572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155572
Zhang T, Kang K, Nanda S, Dalai AK, **e T, Zhao Y (2022c) Comparative study on fuel characteristics and pyrolysis kinetics of corn residue-based hydrochar produced via microwave hydrothermal carbonization. Chemosphere 291:132787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132787
Zhao B, Wang H, Hu Y, Gao J, Zhao G, Ray MB, Xu CC (2020) Hydrothermal co-liquefaction of lignite and lignocellulosic biomass with the addition of formic acid: study on product distribution, characteristics, and synergistic effects. Ind Eng Chem Res 59:21663–21675. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.0c04619
Zhao K, Li W, Yu Y, Chen G, Yan B, Cheng Z, Zhao H, Fang Y (2023) Speciation and transformation of nitrogen in the hydrothermal liquefaction of wastewater-treated duckweed for the bio-oil production. Renew Energy 204:661–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.01.064
Zhu J, Pan X (2022) Efficient sugar production from plant biomass: Current status, challenges, and future directions. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 164:112583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112583
Ziero HDD, Buller LS, Mudhoo A, Ampese LC, Mussatto SI, Carneiro TF (2020) An overview of subcritical and supercritical water treatment of different biomasses for protein and amino acids production and recovery. J Environ Chem Eng 8:104406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104406
Zoppi G, Tito E, Bianco I, Pipitone G, Pirone R, Bensaid S (2023) Life cycle assessment of the biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass in a hydrothermal liquefaction–aqueous phase reforming integrated biorefinery. Renew Energy 206:375–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.02.011
Zubbri NA, Mohamed AR, Lahijani P, Mohammadi M (2021) Low temperature CO2 capture on biomass-derived KOH-activated hydrochar established through hydrothermal carbonization with water-soaking pre-treatment. J Environ Chem Eng 9:105074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.105074
Acknowledgements
SN declares that he is an Associate Editor of Environmental Chemistry Letters.
Funding
The authors acknowledge the funding received from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Canada Research Chairs (CRC) program, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) and BioFuelNet Canada.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
None declared.
Research involving human participants and/or animals
No conflicts, informed consent, and human or animal rights applicable.
Consent for publication
All authors agree to publish this article in Environmental Chemistry Letters.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Khandelwal, K., Seraj, S., Nanda, S. et al. Subcritical water conversion of biomass to biofuels, chemicals and materials: a review. Environ Chem Lett (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-024-01750-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-024-01750-2