Abstract
Geological disasters of reactivated landslides have occurred frequently. Therefore, such landslides’ reactivation mechanism and evolution characteristics of such landslides have become increasingly important. We combined the geological characteristics and failure mode of reactivated landslides in the Three Gorges reservoir (TGR). We found that a permeable sliding surface that can simulate the segmental instability of the sliding zone was developed. The deformation process of reactivated landslides was realized by injecting water into the bottom of the sliding zone. Multi-physical field data were obtained based on volumetric water content sensors, pore pressure converters, and digital image processing. The results showed that (1) The significant decrease in shear strength of the water-saturated sliding zone soil was an essential condition for landslides, and the sudden increase of pore pressure at the sliding surface was a key incentive to activate landslides. (2) Slope deformation was divided into a strong deformation zone, a weak deformation zone, and a retrogressive zone. (3) The landslide instability with the iron-clay sliding zone was mainly controlled by the shear strength of the sliding zone soil. Additionally, the whole sliding was dominant; The landslide instability with the sand-clay sliding zone is unstable under the dual mechanism of strong attenuation of the sliding zone soil and local failure of slope toe. The landslide instability with the clay-sand sliding zone was first damaged at the foot of the slope, then the shear strength attenuation of the sliding zone soil played a significant role in sliding factors. (4) The failure mechanism of reactivated landslides was mainly the combined action of tension-shear failure.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig7_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig8_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig9_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig10_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig11_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig12_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig13_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig14_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig15_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig16_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig17_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig18_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig19_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig20_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-023-03084-9/MediaObjects/10064_2023_3084_Fig21_HTML.jpg)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Burda J, Hartvich F, Valenta J, Smitka V, Rybar J (2013) Climate- induced landslide reactivation at the edge of the Most Basin (Czech Republic): progress towards better landslide prediction. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 13:361–374. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-13-361-2013
Chang CY, Bo JS, Qi WH, Qiao F, Peng D (2022) Study on instability and damage of a loess slope under strong ground motion by numerical simulation. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 152:107050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2021.107050
Chen XP, Liu D (2014) Residual strength of slip zone soils. Landslides 11:305–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0451-z
Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslide types and processes, special report, transportation research board. Natl Acad Sci 247:36–75
Deng H, Wu LZ, Huang RQ, Guo XG, He Q (2017) Formation of the Siwanli ancient landslide in the Dadu River, China. Landslides 14:385–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-016-0756-9
Deng ML, Yi QL, Han B, Zhou J, Li ZJ, Zhang FL (2019) Analysis of surface deformation law of Muyubao landslide in Three Gorges reservoir area. Rock Soil Mech China 40(8):3145–3166. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2018.0809
Eshraghian A, Martin CD, Morgenstern NR (2008) Movement triggersand mechanisms of two earth slides in the Thompson River Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Can Geotech J 45 (9):1189–1209. https://doi.org/10.1139/t08-047
Fan L, Zhang GC, Li B, Tang HM (2017) Deformation and failure of the **aochatou Landslide under rapid drawdown of the reservoir water level based on centrifuge tests. Bull Eng Geol Environ 76:891–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-016-0895-1
Fan XM, Yang F, Srikrishnan SS, Xu Q, Feng ZT, Olga M, Peng M, Ouyang CJ, Jansen JD, Huang RQ (2020) Prediction of a multi-hazard chain by an integrated numerical simulation approach: the Baige landslide, **sha River, China. Landslides 17:147–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01313-5
Gu DM, Huang D, Yang WD, Wei DY, Ji ZL, Guo YF (2017) Understanding the triggering mechanism and possible kinematic evolution of a reactivated landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir. Landslides 14(6):2073–2087. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0845-4
Guo CB, Zhang YS, Li X, Ren SS, Yang ZH, Wu R, ** JJ (2020a) Reactivation of giant Jiangdingya ancient landslide in Zhouqu County, Gansu Province, China. Landslides 17:179–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01266-9
Guo J, Xu xm, Zhang Q, **ao XX, Zhang SS, He SM (2020b) Reservoir regulation for control of an ancient landslide reactivated by water level fluctuations in Heishui River, China. J Earth Sci 31(6):1058–1067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-020-1341-7
He C, Hu X, Tannant DD, Tan F, Zhang Y, Zhang H (2018) Response of a landslide to reservoir impoundment in model tests. Eng Geol 247:84–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.10.021
He K, Ma GT, Hu XW, Liu B (2021) Failure mechanism and stability analysis of a reactivated landslide occurrence in Yanyuan City, China. Landslides 18:1097–1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01571-8
Huang XH, Lei DX, **a JB, Yi W, Zhang P (2019) Forecast analysis and application of stepwise deformation of landslide induced by rainfall. Rock Soil Mech China 40(8):3585–3592. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2018.1197
Huang XH, Guo F, Deng ML, Yi W, Huang HF (2020) Understanding the deformation mechanism and threshold reservoir level of the floating weight-reducing landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China. Landslides 17(12):2879–2894. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01435-1
Huang XH, Wang L, Ye RQ, Yi W, Huang HF, Guo F, Huang GL (2022) Study on deformation characteristics and mechanism of reactivated ancient landslides induced by engineering excavation and rainfall in Three Gorges Reservoir area. Nat Hazards 110:1621–1647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-05005-z
Jiang N, Li HB, Hu YX, Zhang JY, Dai W, Li CJ, Zhou JW (2022) Dynamic evolution mechanism and subsequent reactivated ancient landslide analyses of the “6.17” Danba sequential disasters. Bull Eng Geol Environ 81:149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-02614-1
Kawagoe S, Kazama S, Sarukkalige PR (2009) Assessment of snowmelt triggered landslide hazard and risk in Japan. Cold Regions Sci Technol 58(3):120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2009.05.004
Kennedy R, Take WA, Siemens G (2021) Geotechnical centrifuge modelling of retrogressive sensitive clay landslides. Can Geotech J 58:1452–1465. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2019-0677
Li DY, Yin KL, Glade T, Leo C (2017) Effect of over-consolidation and shear rate on the residual strength of soils of silty sand in the Three Gorges Reservoir. SCI REP-UK 7:5503. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-05749-4
Li SJ, Sun QC, Zhang ZH, Luo XQ (2018) Physical modeling and numerical analysis of slope instability subjected to reservoir impoundment of the Three Gorges. Environ Earth Sci 77:138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7321-x
Li CD, Fu ZY, Wang Y et al (2019a) Susceptibility of reservoir-induced landslides and strategies for increasing the slope stability in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area: Zigui Basin as an example. Eng Geol 261:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105279
Li SL, Xu Q, Tang MG, Lqbal J, Liu J, Zhu X, Liu FZ, Zhu DX (2019b) Characterizing the spatial distribution and fundamental controls of landslides in the three gorges reservoir area, China. 78:4275–4290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-018-1404-5
Li SL, Xu Q, Tang MG, Li HJ, Yang H, Wei Y (2020a) Centrifuge modeling and the analysis of ancient landslides subjected to reservoir water level fluctuation. Sustainability 12:2092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12052092
Liao K, Wu YP, Miao FS, Li LW, Xue Y (2021) Effect of weakening of sliding zone soils in hydro-fluctuation belt on long-term reliability of reservoir landslides. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80:3801–3815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02167-9
Liu D, Hu X, Zhou C, Xu C, He C, Zhang H, Wang Q (2020) Deformation mechanisms and evolution of a pile-reinforced landlslide under long-term reservoir operation. Eng Geol 275:105747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105747
Luo SL, ** GX, Huang D (2019) Long-term coupled effects of hydrological factors on kinematic responses of a reactivated landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir. Eng Geol 261:105271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105271
Ma SY, Qiu HJ, Hu S, Yang DD, Liu ZJ (2021) Characteristics and geomorphology change detection analysis of the Jiangdingya landslide on July 12, 2018, China. Landslides 18:383–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01530-3
Mentes G, Theilen-Willige B, Papp G, Síkhegyi F, Újvári G (2009) Investigation of the relationship between subsurface structures and mass movements of the high loess bank along the River Danube in Hungary. J Geodyn 47:130–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2008.07.005
Miao FS, Wu YP, Li LW, Tang HM, Li YN (2018) Centrifuge model test on the retrogressive landslide subjected to reservoir water level fluctuation. Eng Geol 245:169–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.08.016
Miao FS, Wu YP, Li LW, Liao K, Zhang LF (2019) Risk assessment of snowmelt-induced l andslides based on GIS and an effective snowmelt model. Nat Hazards 97:1151–1173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03693-2
Miao HB, Wang GH (2021) Effects of clay content on the shear behaviors of sliding zone soil originating from muddy interlayers in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Eng Geol 294: 106380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106380
Miao HB, Yin KL, Wang GH (2016) Dynamic mechanism of in termittent reactivation of deep-seated reservoir ancient landslide, China. Rock Soil Mech 37(9):2645
Paronuzzi PL, Bolla A, Pinto D, Lenaz D, Soccal M (2021) The clays involved in the 1963 Vajont landslide: genesis and geomechanical implications. Eng Geol 294:106376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106376
Ren Y, Li TB, Dong SM, Tang JL, Xue DM (2020) Rainfall-induced reactivation mechanism of a landslide with multiple-soft layers. Landslides 17:1269–1281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01357-y
Ren SS, Zhang YS, Xu NX, Wu RL, Liu XY, Du GL (2021) Mobilized strength of gravelly sliding zone soil in reactivated landslide: a case study of a giant landslide in the north-eastern margin of Tibet Plateau. Environ Earth Sci 80:434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09638-y
Ronchetti F, Borgatti L, Cervi F, Lucente CC, Veneziano M, Corsini A (2007) The Valoria landslide reactivation in 2005–2006 (Northern Apennines, Italy). Landslides 4(2):189–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-006-0073-9
Shen JH, Gao YH, Wen LW, ** XH (2018) Deformation response regularity of Liujiaba landslide under fluctuating reservoir water level condition. Nat Hazards 94:151–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3378-9
Song K, Wang F, Yi QL (2018) Landslide deformation behavior influenced by water level fluctuations of the Three Gorges Reservoir (China). Eng Geol 247:58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.10.020
Sun GH, Zheng H, Tang HM, Dai FC (2016) Huangtupo landslide stability under water level fluctuations of the Three Gorges reservoir. Landslides 13(5):1167–1179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-015-0637-7
Sun L, Yang T, Cheng Q, Wu D (2018) Experimental study on couse of progressive formation of retrogressive landslide. J Southwest Jiaotong Univ China 53(4):762–771
Sun L, Kai C, Yixuan W (2021) Model test study on retrogressive and sliding mechanism of reservoir-reactivated landslide. J Harbin Inst Technol China 53(11):162–170
Sun LJ, Li CJ, Shen FM (2022) Two-surface progressive failure mechanism and stability quantitative evaluation of water-induced weakening retrogressive landslides: case study for clay landslides China. Bull Eng Geol Environ 81:382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-02860-3
Vallet A, Charlier JB, Fabbri O, Bertrand C, Carry N, Mudry J (2016) Functioning and precipitation-displacement modelling of rainfall-induced deep-seated landslides subject to creep deformation. Landslides 13(4):653–670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-015-0592-3
Wang BL (2019) Failure mechanism of an ancient sensitive clay landslide in eastern Canada. Landslides 16:1483–1495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01198-4
Wang JJ, Liang Y, Zhang HP, Wu Y, Lin X (2014) A loess landslide induced by excavation and rainfall. Landslides 11:141–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0418-0
Wang L, Han J, Liu SY, Yin XM (2020) Variation in shearing rate effect on residual strength of slip zone soils due to test conditions. Geotech Geol Eng 38:2773–2785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01186-9
Wang S, Pan Y, Wang L et al (2021) Deformation characteristics, mechanisms, and influencing factors of hydrodynamic pressure landslides in the Three Gorges Reservoir: a case study and model test study. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80:3513–3533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02120-w
White DJ, Take W, Boltom MA (2016) Improved image-based deformation measurement for geotechnical application. Can Geotech J 53(5):727–739. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0253
Wu YP, Cheng C, He GF et al (2014) Landslide stability analysis based on random-fuzzy reliability: taking Liangshui**g landslide as a case. Stoch Env Res Risk A 28(7):1723–1732. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-013-0831-x
Yan JB, Zou ZX, Mu R, Hu XL, Zhang JC, Zhang W, Su AJ, Wang JG, Luo T (2022) Evaluating the stability of Outang landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir area considering the mechanical behavior with large deformation of the slip zone. Nat Hazards 112:2523–2547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05276-0
Yang YT, Sun GH, Zheng H, Qi Y (2019) Investigation of the sequential excavation of a soil-rock-mixture slope using the numerical manifold method. Eng Geol 256:93–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.05.005
Yang YT, Sun GH, Zheng H, Yan CZ (2020a) An improved numerical manifold method with multiple layers of mathematical cover systems for the stability analysis of soil-rock-mixture slopes. 264:105373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105373
Yang YT, Xu DD, Liu F, Zheng H (2020b) Modeling the entire progressive failure process of rock slopes using a strength-based criterion. Comput Geotech 126:103726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2020.103726
Yang YT, Wu WN, Zheng H (2021) Stability analysis of slopes using the vector sum numerical manifold method. Bull Eng Geol Environ 81:345–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01903-x
Zhang CY, Yin YP, Dai ZW, Huang BL, Zhang ZH, Jiang XN, Tan WJ, Wang LQ (2021a) Reactivation mechanism of a large-scale ancient landslide. Landslides 18:397–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01538-9
Zhang JM, Luo Y, Zhou Z, Chikhotkin V, Duan MD (2021b) Research on the rainfall-induced regional slope failures along the Yangtze River of Anhui, China. Landslides 18:1801–1821. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01623-7
Zhao Y, Xu M, Guo J, Zhang Q, Zhao HM, Kang XB, **a Q (2015) Accumulation characteristics, mechanism, and identification of an ancient translational landslide in China. Landslides 12:1119–1130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-014-0535-4
Zheng YF, Yen RL, Zhao RS (2021) A numerical simulation of seismic signals of coseismic landslides. Eng Geol 289:106191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106191
Zhou CM, Shao W, Van Westen CJ (2014) Comparing two methods to estimate lateral force acting on stabilizing piles for a landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Eng Geol 173(5):41–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.02.004
Zhu RS, **e WL, Liu QQ, Yang H, Wang QY (2022) Shear behavior of sliding zone soil of loess landslides via ring shear tests in the South **gyang Plateau. Bull Eng Geol Environ 81:244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-02719-7
Zou Z, Lei D, Jiang G, Luo B, Chang S, Hou C (2020a) Experimental study of bridge foundation reinforced with front and back rows of anti-slide piles on gravel soil slope under El Centro Waves. Appl Sci 10:3108. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10093108
Zou ZX, Yan JB, Tang HM, Wang S, **ong CR, Hu XL (2020b) A shear constitutive model for describing the full process of the deformation and failure of slip zone soil. Eng Geol 276:105766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020b.105766
Funding
This study was financially supported by the Science and Technology Projects of the Education Department of Jilin Province (Grant No. JJKH20210261KJ and No. JJKH20220291KJ).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sun, L., Li, C., Shen, F. et al. Reactivation mechanism and evolution characteristics of water softening-induced reservoir-reactivated landslides: a case study for the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China. Bull Eng Geol Environ 82, 66 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03084-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03084-9