Abstract
This study investigates the diurnal pattern of precipitation over Metro Manila in terms of precipitation amount (PA), precipitation frequency (PF), and precipitation intensity (PI) using data from a dense network of automated weather stations from 2013 to 2018. The analysis was conducted for the southwest (May to September; MJJAS) and northeast (November to March; NDJFM) monsoon seasons, and for the two transition months in April and October to examine the seasonality of the diurnal patterns of precipitation. The area averaged diurnal cycle of PA over Metro Manila during MJJAS shows two peaks around early afternoon (14:00 LST; Local Standard Time), coinciding with the peak of PI, and early evening (18:00 LST), coinciding with the peak of PF. The area averaged diurnal cycle of PA during NDJFM is lower in magnitude than during the MJJAS season and shows three peaks occurring at 01:00 LST, 16:00 LST, and 20:00 LST, in which the first and third peaks nearly coincide with the peaks of PI. During April, two peaks in PA were found between 12:00 − 15:00 LST and 18:00 − 21:00 LST, while during October, PA, PF, and PI all have two peaks between 10:00 LST − 20:00 LST and 21:00 LST − 06:00 LST. Examination of the diurnal variations in surface winds and the contribution of short (1 − 3 consecutive hours), medium (3 − 6 consecutive hours), and long (> 6 consecutive hours) duration events shows that high values of PA in the two seasons and transition months coincide with high surface winds, or where there is surface wind convergence over Metro Manila. In addition, short duration events contributed more to the observed peaks of PA. The results of this study could serve as a basis for improving numerical models in representing the diurnal cycle of precipitation over Metro Manila.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The precipitation and winds data that were analyzed in this study are available upon request at manila@observatory.ph, while the ERA5 reanalysis data set is publicly available for download at https://www.ecmwf.int/en/forecasts/dataset/ecmwf-reanalysis-v5.
References
Argüeso D, Di Luca A, Evans JP (2016) Precipitation over urban areas in the western Maritime Continent using a convection-permitting model. Clim Dyn 47:1143–1159
Augustine JA (1984) The diurnal variation of large-scale inferred rainfall over the tropical Pacific Ocean during August 1979. Mon Wea Rev 112:1745–1751
Bañares EN, Narisma GTT, Simpas JBB, Cruz FT, Lorenzo GRH, Cambaliza MOL, Coronel RC (2021) Seasonal and diurnal variations of observed convective rain events in Metro Manila, Philippines. Atmos Res 258:105646
Chen X, Zhao K, Xue M, Zhou B, Huang X, Xu W (2015) Radar-observed diurnal cycle and propagation of convection over the Pearl River Delta during Mei-Yu season. J Geophys Res: Atmos 120:12557–12575
Chen X, Zhang F, Zhao K (2016) Diurnal variations of the land–sea breeze and its related precipitation over South China. J Atmos Sci 73:4793–4815
DeGaetano AT (1997) A quality-control routine for hourly wind observations. J Atmos Ocean Tech 14:308–317
Doan QV, Dipankar A, Simón-Moral A, Sanchez C, Prasanna V, Roth M, Huang XY (2021) Urban-induced modifications to the diurnal cycle of rainfall over a tropical city. Q J Royal Met Soc 147:1189–1201
Hersbach H, Bell B, Berrisford P, Hirahara S, Horányi A, Muñoz-Sabater J, Nicolas J, Peubey C, Radu R, Schepers D, Simmons A (2020) The ERA5 global reanalysis. Q J Royal Meteorol Soc 146:1999–2049
Hilario MR, Olaguera LM, Narisma GT, Matsumoto J (2021) Diurnal characteristics of Summer Precipitation Over Luzon Island, Philippines. Asia-Pacific J Atmos Sci 57:573–585
Huang WR, Chan JC (2012) Seasonal variation of diurnal and semidiurnal rainfall over Southeast China. Clim Dyn 39:1913–1927
Huang WR, Chang YH (2018) Characteristics and mechanisms of the diurnal variation of winter precipitation in Taiwan. Int J Climatol 38:3058–3068
Huang YF, Gayte M, Tsang Y, Longman RJ, Nugent AD, Kodama K, Lucas MP, Giambelluca TW (2022) Hourly rainfall data from rain gauge networks and weather radar up to 2020 across the Hawaiian Islands. Sci Data 9:1–11
** X, Wu T, Li L (2013) The quasi-stationary feature of nocturnal precipitation in the Sichuan Basin and the role of the Tibetan Plateau. Clim Dyn 41:977–994
Johnson RH (2011) Diurnal cycle of monsoon convection. In The Global Monsoon System: Research and Forecast. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Covent Garden, London, pp 257–276. https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/9789814343411_0015
Kikuchi K, Wang B (2008) Diurnal precipitation regimes in the global tropics. J Clim 21:2680–2696
Kintanar RL (1984) Climate of the Philippines. PAGASA Report, Quezon City, Philippines, p 38
Kubota H, Wang B (2009) How much do tropical cyclones affect seasonal and interannual rainfall variability over the western North Pacific? J Clim 22:5495–5510
Liu W, Cook KH, Vizy EK (2019) The role of mesoscale convective systems in the diurnal cycle of rainfall and its seasonality over sub-Saharan Northern Africa. Clim Dyn 52:729–745
Natoli MB, Maloney ED (2019) Intraseasonal variability of the diurnal cycle of precipitation in the Philippines. J Atmos Sci 76:3633–3654
Natoli MB, Maloney ED (2022) The tropical diurnal cycle under varying states of the monsoonal background wind. J Atmos Sci. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-22-0045.1
Nesbitt SW, Zipser EJ (2003) The diurnal cycle of rainfall and convective intensity according to three years of TRMM measurements. J Clim 16:1456–1475
Ohsawa T, Ueda H, Hayashi T, Watanabe A, Matsumoto J (2001) Diurnal variations of convective activity and rainfall in tropical Asia. J Meteorol Soc Jpn 79:333–352
Oki T, Musiake K (1994) Seasonal change of the diurnal cycle of precipitation over Japan and Malaysia. J App Meteorol Climatol 33:1445–1463
Pérez-Méndez M, Tejeda-Martínez A, Fitzjarrald DR (2019) Diurnal variation of rainfall in a tropical coastal region with complex orography. Atmosphere 10:604
Radhakrishna B, Rao TN (2021) Diurnal variation of rainfall in the presence of large-and small-scale precipitating systems during different monsoon seasons over a complex terrain (Gadanki) region. J App Meteorol Climatol 60:857–872
Riley-Dellaripa EM, Maloney ED, Toms BA, Saleeby SM, van den Heever SC (2020) Topographic effects on the Luzon diurnal cycle during the BSISO. J Atmos Sci 77:3–30
Takahashi HG, Fu**ami H, Yasunari T, Matsumoto J (2010) Diurnal rainfall pattern observed by Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Radar (TRMM‐PR) around the Indochina peninsula. J Geophys Res: Atmos 115(D7)
Tsujimoto K, Ohta T, Aida K, Tamakawa K, Im MS (2018) Diurnal pattern of rainfall in Cambodia: its regional characteristics and local circulation. Prog Earth Planet Sci 5:1–18
Wang J, Zhang R, Wang Y (2012) Areal differences in diurnal variations in summer precipitation over Bei**g metropolitan region. Theo Appl Climatol 110:395–408
**ao C, Yuan W, Yu R (2018) Diurnal cycle of rainfall in amount, frequency, intensity, duration, and the seasonality over the UK. Int J Climatol 38:4967–4978
Yokoi S, Shirooka R, Yoneyama K, Cayanan EO, Iglesia CO (2022) Diurnal to Intraseasonal precipitation variation around the northwestern coast of Luzon Island: results from YMC-BSM 2018 Field Campaign. Geophys Res Lett 49:e2022GL098519
Yu R, Zhou T, **ong A, Zhu Y, Li J (2007) Diurnal variations of summer precipitation over contiguous China. Geophys Res Lett 34(1)
Yulihastin E, Wahyu Hadi T, Sari Ningsih N, Ridho Syahputra M (2020) Early morning peaks in the diurnal cycle of precipitation over the northern coast of West Java and possible influencing factors. Ann Geophys 38:231–242
Zhang W, Huang A, Zhou Y, Yang B, Fang D, Zhang L, Wu Y (2017) Diurnal cycle of precipitation over Fujian Province during the pre-summer rainy season in southern China. Theo App Climatol 130:993–1006
Zhang Y, Xue M, Zhu K, Zhou B (2019) What is the main cause of diurnal variation and nocturnal peak of summer precipitation in Sichuan Basin, China? The key role of boundary layer low-level jet inertial oscillations. J Geophys Res: Atmos 124:2643–2664
Zhang W, Yang J, Yang L, Niyogi D (2022) Impacts of City Shape on Rainfall in Inland and Coastal Environments. Earth’s Future 10:e2022EF002654
Zhu L, Liu J, Zhu AX, Sheng M, Duan Z (2018) Spatial distribution of diurnal rainfall variation in summer over China. J Hydrometeorol 19:667–678
Zhuo H, Zhao P, Zhou T (2014) Diurnal cycle of summer rainfall in Shandong of eastern China. Int J Climatol 34:742–750
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the support from the “High-definition Clean Energy, Climate, and Weather Forecasts for the Philippines” project. A.M.T. Magnaye is supported by the JST SPRING Grant Number JPMJSP2124.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and analysis were performed by Lyndon Mark P. Olaguera, Alyssa Gewell A. Llorin, Angela Monina T. Magnaye, Faye Abigail Cruz, and Jose Ramon T. Villarin. Data preparation and collection was performed by Xzann Garry Vincent M. Topacio. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Lyndon Mark P. Olaguera and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Olaguera, L.M.P., Llorin, A.G.A., Magnaye, A.M.T. et al. Observed characteristics and seasonality of the diurnal patterns of precipitation over Metro Manila, Philippines. Theor Appl Climatol 155, 1123–1138 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-023-04684-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-023-04684-x