SpringerLink
Log in

Smell, taste and food habits changes along body mass index increase: an observational study

  • Miscellaneous
  • Published:
European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

To evaluate the changes in gustatory and olfactory sensitivity and dietary habits between healthy lean subjects (LS) and participants affected by overweight (OW), stage I and II obesity and to estimate possible impact of these factors on body mass index (BMI).

Methods

After a general and ear–nose–throat evaluation, taste and olfactory function testing by means of taste strips and sniffin’ stick tests, respectively, and food habits analysis by means of food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), 221 participants (68 LS [33 female; mean age = 53.01 ± 7.54 years]; 51 OW [26 female; mean age = 51.5 ± 12.16 years]; 50 stage I obesity [24 female; mean age = 50.78 ± 13.71 years] and 52 stage II obesity [24 female; mean age = 52.21 ± 13.35 years]) were enrolled in the study.

Results

Significant (p < 0.008) reductions in total and subtest taste and smell scores were found in stage I and II obesity when compared to LS and OW participants. FFQ depicted a progressive intake increase of nutrients along the BMI stages. Significant associations were found between BMI and taste/smell subtests sugar taste carbs, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Conclusions

These data demonstrated for the first time a parallel impairment in smell and taste in a large sample size of participants from lean to stage II obesity and could reinforce those previous theories claiming that the greater the ability in taste or smell qualities perception, the lower the preference for them, resulting in a lower intake of specific foods.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data are subject to national data protection laws. Therefore, data cannot be made freely available in a public repository. However, the datasets generated from the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

  1. Peng M, Coutts D, Wang T, Cakmak YO (2019) Systematic review of olfactory shifts related to obesity. Obes Rev 20(2):325–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12800

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Micarelli A, Mrakic-Sposta S, Micarelli B, Malacrida S, Misici I, Carbini V, Iennaco I, Caputo S, Vezzoli A, Alessandrini M (2022) Smell Impairment in stage I-II obesity: correlation with biochemical regulators and clinical aspects. Laryngoscope 132(10):2028–2035. https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.30325

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Berthoud HR, Zheng H (2012) Modulation of taste responsiveness and food preference by obesity and weight loss. Physiol Behav 107(4):527–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.04.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Swinburn BA, Sacks G, Hall KD, McPherson K, Finegood DT, Moodie ML, Gortmaker SL (2011) The global obesity pandemic: shaped by global drivers and local environments. Lancet 378(9793):804–814. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60813-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Micarelli A, Malacrida S, Strapazzon G, Mrakic-Sposta S, Micarelli B, Alessandrini N, Carbini V, Caputo S, Falla M, Alessandrini M (2021) Impact of nutritional intervention on taste perception-a sco** review. Foods 10(11):2727. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112747

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Cárdenas Fuentes G, Bawaked RA, Martínez González M, Corella D, Subirana Cachinero I, Salas-Salvadó J, Estruch R, Serra-Majem L, Ros E, Lapetra Peralta J, Fiol M, Rekondo J, Gómez-Gracia E, Tur Marí JA, Pinto Sala X, Babio N, Ortega C, Martínez JA, Schröder H (2018) Association of physical activity with body mass index, waist circumference and incidence of obesity in older adults. Eur J Public Health 28(5):944–950. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cky030

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Micarelli A, Vezzoli A, Malacrida S, Micarelli B, Misici I, Carbini V, Iennaco I, Caputo S, Mrakic-Sposta S, Alessandrini M (2023) Taste function in adult humans from lean condition to stage ii obesity: interactions with biochemical regulators, dietary habits, and clinical aspects. Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051114

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Makaronidis JM, Neilson S, Cheung WH, Tymoszuk U, Pucci A, Finer N, Doyle J, Hashemi M, Elkalaawy M, Adamo M, Jenkinson A, Batterham RL (2016) Reported appetite, taste and smell changes following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy: effect of gender, type 2 diabetes and relationship to post-operative weight loss. Appetite 107:93–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.07.029

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Skrandies W, Zschieschang R (2015) Olfactory and gustatory functions and its relation to body weight. Physiol Behav 142:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.01.024

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Stafford LD, Whittle A (2015) Obese individuals have higher preference and sensitivity to odor of chocolate. Chem Senses 40(4):279–284. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjv007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Velluzzi F, Deledda A, Onida M, Loviselli A, Crnjar R, Sollai G (2022) Relationship between olfactory function and BMI in normal weight healthy subjects and patients with overweight or obesity. Nutrients 14(6):1262. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14061262

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Alessandrini M, Micarelli A, Chiaravalloti A, Candidi M, Bruno E, Di Pietro B, Schillaci O, Pagani M (2014) Cortico-subcortical metabolic correlates of olfactory processing in healthy resting subjects. Sci Rep 4:5146. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep05146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Yeomans MR (2006) Olfactory influences on appetite and satiety in humans. Physiol Behav 89(1):10–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.04.010

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Sørensen LB, Møller P, Flint A, Martens M, Raben A (2003) Effect of sensory perception of foods on appetite and food intake: a review of studies on humans. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27(10):1152–1166. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802391

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Rohde K, Schamarek I, Blüher M (2020) Consequences of obesity on the sense of taste: taste buds as treatment targets? Diabetes Metab J 44(4):509–528. https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2020.0058

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Poessel M, Breuer N, Joshi A, Pampel A, Villringer A, Hummel T, Horstmann A (2020) Reduced olfactory bulb volume in obesity and its relation to metabolic health status. Front Hum Neurosci. 14:586998. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.586998

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Micarelli A, Viziano A, Granito I, Micarelli RX, Felicioni A, Alessandrini M (2021) Changes in body composition in unilateral vestibular hypofunction: relationships between bioelectrical impedance analysis and neuro-otological parameters. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 278(7):2603–2611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-020-06561-z

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Buscemi S, Rosafio G, Vasto S, Massenti FM, Grosso G, Galvano F, Rini N, Barile AM, Maniaci V, Cosentino L, Verga S (2015) Validation of a food frequency questionnaire for use in Italian adults living in Sicily. Int J Food Sci Nutr 66(4):426–438. https://doi.org/10.3109/09637486.2015.1025718

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Black AE (2000) Critical evaluation of energy intake using the Goldberg cut-off for energy intake:basal metabolic rate. A practical guide to its calculation, use and limitations. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 24(9):1119–1130. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801376

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Korth AL, Bhutani S, Neuhouser ML, Beresford SA, Snetselaar L, Tinker LF, Schoeller DA (2020) Comparison of methods used to correct self-reported protein intake for systematic variation in reported energy intake using quantitative biomarkers of dietary intake. J Nutr 150(5):1330–1336. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxaa007

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Streppel MT, de Vries JH, Meijboom S, Beekman M, de Craen AJ, Slagboom PE, Feskens EJ (2013) Relative validity of the food frequency questionnaire used to assess dietary intake in the Leiden Longevity Study. Nutr J 12:75. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-12-75

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Ginieis R, Abeywickrema S, Oey I, Peng M (2022) Testing Links of Food-Related Olfactory Perception to Peripheral Ghrelin and Leptin Concentrations. Front Nutr 9:888608. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.888608

  23. Mueller C, Kallert S, Renner B, Stiassny K, Temmel AF, Hummel T, Kobal G (2003) Quantitative assessment of gustatory function in a clinical context using impregnated “taste strips.” Rhinology 41(1):2–6

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Landis BN, Welge-Luessen A, Brämerson A, Bende M, Mueller CA, Nordin S, Hummel T (2009) “Taste Strips” a rapid, lateralized, gustatory bedside identification test based on impregnated filter papers. J Neurol 256(2):242–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-009-0088-y

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Hummel T, Sekinger B, Wolf SR, Pauli E, Kobal G (1997) “Sniffin” sticks’: olfactory performance assessed by the combined testing of odor identification, odor discrimination and olfactory threshold. Chem Senses 22(1):39–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/22.1.39

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Rumeau C, Nguyen DT, Jankowski R (2016) How to assess olfactory performance with the Sniffin’ Sticks test(®). Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis 133(3):203–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anorl.2015.08.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Hummel T, Kobal G, Gudziol H, Mackay-Sim A (2007) Normative data for the “Sniffin’ Sticks” including tests of odor identification, odor discrimination, and olfactory thresholds: an upgrade based on a group of more than 3,000 subjects. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 264(3):237–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-006-0173-0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Krueger KJ, Rahman F, Shen Q, Hiebert JB, Pierce JD (2021) Clinical trial visits in the age of COVID-19: implementation of research participant safety measures. Int J Clin Trials 8(2):167–173. https://doi.org/10.18203/2349-3259.ijct20211466

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Trellakis S, Tagay S, Fischer C, Rydleuskaya A, Scherag A, Bruderek K, Schlegl S, Greve J, Canbay AE, Lang S, Brandau S (2011) Ghrelin, leptin and adiponectin as possible predictors of the hedonic value of odors. Regul Pept 167(1):112–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regpep.2010.12.005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Micarelli A, Cormano A, Caccamo D, Alessandrini M (2019) Olfactory-related quality of life in multiple chemical sensitivity: a genetic-acquired factors model. Int J Mol Sci. 21(1):156. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21010156

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Pepino MY, Finkbeiner S, Beauchamp GK, Mennella JA (2010) Obese women have lower monosodium glutamate taste sensitivity and prefer higher concentrations than do normal-weight women. Obesity (Silver Spring) 18(5):959–965. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2009.493

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Sartor F, Donaldson LF, Markland DA, Loveday H, Jackson MJ, Kubis HP (2011) Taste perception and implicit attitude toward sweet related to body mass index and soft drink supplementation. Appetite 57(1):237–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.05.107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Vignini A, Borroni F, Sabbatinelli J, Pugnaloni S, Alia S, Taus M, Ferrante L, Mazzanti L, Fabri M (2019) General decrease of taste sensitivity is related to increase of BMI: a simple method to monitor eating behavior. Dis Markers 2019:2978026. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2978026

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Hedner M, Larsson M, Arnold N, Zucco GM, Hummel T (2010) Cognitive factors in odor detection, odor discrimination, and odor identification tasks. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 32(10):1062–1067. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803391003683070

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Palouzier-Paulignan B, Lacroix MC, Aimé P, Baly C, Caillol M, Congar P, Julliard AK, Tucker K, Fadool DA (2012) Olfaction under metabolic influences. Chem Senses 37(9):769–797. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjs059

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Tong J, Mannea E, Aimé P, Pfluger PT, Yi CX, Castaneda TR, Davis HW, Ren X, Pixley S, Benoit S, Julliard K, Woods SC, Horvath TL, Sleeman MM, D’Alessio D, Obici S, Frank R, Tschöp MH (2011) Ghrelin enhances olfactory sensitivity and exploratory sniffing in rodents and humans. J Neurosci 31(15):5841–5846. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.5680-10.2011

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Ketterer C, Heni M, Thamer C, Herzberg-Schäfer SA, Häring HU, Fritsche A (2011) Acute, short-term hyperinsulinemia increases olfactory threshold in healthy subjects. Int J Obes 35(8):1135–1138. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.251

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Dicker D, Beck A, Markel A, Marcovicu D, Mazzawi S, Sarid M, Greenberg E, Atkinson RL (2020) Weight loss, dietary preferences, and reduction in the sense of smell with the use of a novel nasal device. Obes Facts 13(5):473–486. https://doi.org/10.1159/000508976

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Nakazato M, Murakami N, Date Y, Kojima M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K, Matsukura S (2001) A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 409(6817):194–198. https://doi.org/10.1038/35051587

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Kubasova N, Burdakov D, Domingos AI (2015) Sweet and low on leptin: hormonal regulation of sweet taste buds. Diabetes 64(11):3651–3652. https://doi.org/10.2337/dbi15-0004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Takai S, Watanabe Y, Sanematsu K, Yoshida R, Margolskee RF, Jiang P, Atsuta I, Koyano K, Ninomiya Y, Shigemura N (2019) Effects of insulin signaling on mouse taste cell proliferation. PLoS One. 14(11):e0225190. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225190

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Newman LP, Bolhuis DP, Torres SJ, Keast RS (2016) Dietary fat restriction increases fat taste sensitivity in people with obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring) 24(2):328–334. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21357

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Besser G, Erlacher B, Aydinkoc-Tuzcu K, Liu DT, Pablik E, Niebauer V, Koenighofer M, Renner B, Mueller CA (2020) Body-mass-index associated differences in ortho- and retronasal olfactory function and the individual significance of olfaction in health and disease. J Clin Med. 9(2):366. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9020366

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Shepherd GM (2006) Smell images and the flavour system in the human brain. Nature 444(7117):316–321. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05405

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Doty RL, Cameron EL (2009) Sex differences and reproductive hormone influences on human odor perception. Physiol Behav 97(2):213–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.02.032

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Larsson M, Nilsson LG, Olofsson JK, Nordin S (2004) Demographic and cognitive predictors of cued odor identification: evidence from a population-based study. Chem Senses 29(6):547–554. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjh059

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Jayasinghe SN, Kruger R, Walsh DCI, Cao G, Rivers S, Richter M, Breier BH (2017) Is sweet taste perception associated with sweet food liking and intake? Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9070750

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Fernández-Aranda F, Agüera Z, Fernández-García JC, Garrido-Sanchez L, Alcaide-Torres J, Tinahones FJ, Giner-Bartolomé C, Baños RM, Botella C, Cebolla A, de la Torre R, Fernández-Real JM, Ortega FJ, Frühbeck G, Gómez-Ambrosi J, Granero R, Islam MA, Jiménez-Murcia S, Tárrega S, Menchón JM, Fagundo AB, Sancho C, Estivill X, Treasure J, Casanueva FF (2016) Smell-taste dysfunctions in extreme weight/eating conditions: analysis of hormonal and psychological interactions. Endocrine 51(2):256–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-015-0684-9

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Noh H, Paik HY, Kim J, Chung J (2013) Salty taste acuity is affected by the joint action of αENaC A663T gene polymorphism and available zinc intake in young women. Nutrients 5(12):4950–4963. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5124950

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Dalenberg JR, Patel BP, Denis R, Veldhuizen MG, Nakamura Y, Vinke PC, Luquet S, Small DM (2020) Short-term consumption of sucralose with, but not without, carbohydrate impairs neural and metabolic sensitivity to sugar in humans. Cell Metab 31(3):493-502.e497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.01.014

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Wise PM, Nattress L, Flammer LJ, Beauchamp GK (2016) Reduced dietary intake of simple sugars alters perceived sweet taste intensity but not perceived pleasantness. Am J Clin Nutr 103(1):50–60. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.112300

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Bolhuis DP, Gijsbers L, de Jager I, Geleijnse JM, de Graaf K (2015) Encapsulated sodium supplementation of 4weeks does not alter salt taste preferences in a controlled low sodium and low potassium diet. Food Qual Prefer 46:58–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.07.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Khan RM, Luk CH, Flinker A, Aggarwal A, Lapid H, Haddad R, Sobel N (2007) Predicting odor pleasantness from odorant structure: pleasantness as a reflection of the physical world. J Neurosci 27(37):10015–10023. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.1158-07.2007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. López-Dávalos PC, Requena T, Pozo-Bayón M, Muñoz-González C (2023) Decreased retronasal olfaction and taste perception in obesity are related to saliva biochemical and microbiota composition. Food Res Int. 167:112660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112660

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Heilmann S, Strehle G, Rosenheim K, Damm M, Hummel T (2002) Clinical assessment of retronasal olfactory function. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 128(4):414–418. https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.128.4.414

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Landis BN, Frasnelli J, Reden J, Lacroix JS, Hummel T (2005) Differences between orthonasal and retronasal olfactory functions in patients with loss of the sense of smell. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 131(11):977–981. https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.131.11.977

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Unit of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation and Sensory Organs, UNITER ONLUS, Rome, Italy

    Alessandro Micarelli, Beatrice Micarelli, Ilaria Misici & Valentina Carbini

  2. Institute of Mountain Emergency Medicine, Eurac Research, Bolzano, Italy

    Sandro Malacrida

  3. Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council (CNR), Milan, Italy

    Alessandra Vezzoli & Simona Mrakic-Sposta

  4. L-Nutra Italia S.R.L, Milan, Italy

    Sara Caputo

  5. Department of Clinical Sciences and Translational Medicine, ENT Unit, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy

    Marco Alessandrini

Authors
  1. Alessandro Micarelli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sandro Malacrida
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Alessandra Vezzoli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Beatrice Micarelli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ilaria Misici
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Valentina Carbini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Sara Caputo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Simona Mrakic-Sposta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Marco Alessandrini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization AM and MA; methodology AM, SMS, SM, AV, IM, BM and VC; formal analysis AM, SMS, MA, VC, AV and SM; data curation, AM, SMS, SM, IM, and AV; writing—original draft preparation AM, MA, SMS, SM and AV; writing—review and editing AM, SM, SMS, AV, BM, SC, VC, MA; supervision AM, SMS, SC, MA, IM, SM and AV. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alessandro Micarelli.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Micarelli, A., Malacrida, S., Vezzoli, A. et al. Smell, taste and food habits changes along body mass index increase: an observational study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 280, 5595–5606 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-023-08204-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-023-08204-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation