Abstract
Urban environments are characterised by different microclimates, ecological resources and habitat connectivity compared to nonurban environments. Hence, urban environments may affect phenotypic variation of local populations relative to populations in adjacent nonurban environments through different mechanisms (phenotypic plasticity, natural selection, phenotypic sorting). We analysed the effects of urbanisation on phenotypic traits in adults of the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus at three spatial scales (0.5, 3, and 5 km). Traits included functional morphology, personality-related behaviours (i.e. boldness and exploration), metabolic rate and song parameters. Our experimental tests pointed to several lines of behavioural divergence between individuals of urban and nonurban populations. Grasshoppers of urban population origin were on average shyer and less explorative, but they were more rapid to reach the edges of an artificial environment deprived of any food or conspecifics compared to individuals of nonurban population origin. Songs of urban grasshoppers were characterised by a narrower frequency range than songs of nonurban grasshoppers. Their constitutive bursts of sound (echemes) were more spaced out than songs of nonurban conspecifics. Interestingly, we found more autotomized grasshoppers (i.e. self-amputated individuals) in the urban environment, and these individuals tended to be bolder, while also having more spaced echemes in comparison to uninjured conspecifics. We also demonstrate that the spatial scale at which urbanisation showed the most pronounced effects varied considerably for behavioural and song traits. The detectability and size effects of urbanisation on traits may vary with the spatial scale at which urbanisation is studied around focal populations or habitat patches. Our study motivates for a documented characterisation of the multiple and complex effects of urbanisation on functional phenotypic trait values at the intraspecific level.
Significance statement
We analysed the impact of urbanisation on multiple phenotypic traits of a thermophilous grasshopper species. We integrated information on morphology, physiology, behaviour and song characteristics, and we addressed the relationships of those traits with urbanisation at several spatial scales. Our study points at phenotypic differences between urban and nonurban environments, and we show that such relationships are spatial-scale dependent or sensitive. We provide evidence for spatial-scale dependent effects of urbanisation on boldness and explorative behaviour. Our study contributes to our understanding of how urban areas shape behavioural variation across anthropogenic landscapes. We also observed a high incidence of autotomized grasshoppers in highly urbanised environments. Autotomy refers to the extreme escape tactic where the grasshopper sheds a limb to escape predation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets supporting this article have been uploaded as part of the electronic supplementary material (Waterschoot—Bataille—Van Dyck—Data.txt and Waterschoot—Bataille—Van Dyck—Data_Bioacoustics.txt).
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Alberti M (2015) Eco-evolutionary dynamics in an urbanizing planet. Trends Ecol Evol 30:114–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2014.11.007
Alberti M, Correa C, Marzluff JM et al (2017a) Global urban signatures of phenotypic change in animal and plant populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:8951–8956. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1606034114
Alberti M, Marzluff JM, Hunt VM (2017b) Urban driven phenotypic changes: empirical observations and theoretical implications for eco-evolutionary feedback. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 372:20160029. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0029
Araya-Salas M, Smith-Vidaurre G (2017) warbleR: an R package to streamline analysis of animal acoustic signals. Methods Ecol Evol 8:184–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12624
Arnfield AJ (2003) Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Int J Climatol 23:1–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.859
Atwell JW, Cardoso GC, Whittaker DJ et al (2012) Boldness behavior and stress physiology in a novel urban environment suggest rapid correlated evolutionary adaptation. Behav Ecol 23:960–969. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/ars059
Auer SK, Dick CA, Metcalfe NB, Reznick DN (2018) Metabolic rate evolves rapidly and in parallel with the pace of life history. Nat Commun 9:14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02514-z
Autodesk, Inc. (2017) AutoCAD 21.0
Baguette M, Van Dyck H (2007) Landscape connectivity and animal behavior: functional grain as a key determinant for dispersal. Landsc Ecol 22:1117–1129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-007-9108-4
Bailey RI, Lineham ME, Thomas CD, Butlin RK (2003) Measuring dispersal and detecting departures from a random walk model in a grasshopper hybrid zone. Ecol Entomol 28:129–138. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2311.2003.00504.x
Bateman PW, Fleming PA (2006) Sex, intimidation and severed limbs: the effect of simulated predator attack and limb autotomy on calling and emergence behaviour in the field cricket Gryllus bimaculatus. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 59:674–681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-005-0096-6
Bateman PW, Fleming PA (2011) Failure to launch? The influence of limb autotomy on the escape behavior of a semiaquatic grasshopper Paroxya atlantica (Acrididae). Behav Ecol 22:763–768. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arr045
Bates D, Mächler M, Bolker B, Walker S (2015) Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw 67:1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Beckmann C, Biro PA (2013) On the validity of a single (boldness) assay in personality research. Ethology 119:937–947. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12137
Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y (1995) Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J R Stat Soc Ser B Methodol 57:289–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
Benton T (2012) Grasshoppers and Crickets, UK. Collins, London, United Kingdom
Beyer HL (2007) Hawth’s Analysis Tools for ArcGIS (Version 3.27). http://www.spatialecology.com/htools/index.php. Accessed 15 Jan 2018
Brans KI, Govaert L, Engelen JMT et al (2017) Eco-evolutionary dynamics in urbanized landscapes: evolution, species sorting and the change in zooplankton body size along urbanization gradients. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 372:20160030. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0030
Brans KI, Stoks R, De Meester L (2018) Urbanization drives genetic differentiation in physiology and structures the evolution of pace-of-life syndromes in the water flea Daphnia magna. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 285:20180169. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0169
Bridle JR, Butlin RK (2002) Mating signal variation and bimodality in a mosaic hybrid zone between Chorthippus grasshopper species. Evolution 56:1184–1198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01431.x
Broughton WB (1976) Proposal for a new term ‘echeme’ to replace ‘chirp’ in animal acoustics. Physiol Entomol 1:103–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1976.tb00896.x
Brumm H, Naguib M (2009) Chapter 1 Environmental Acoustics and the Evolution of Bird Song. In: Advances in the Study of Behavior. Academic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, pp 1–33
Burns JG (2008) The validity of three tests of temperament in guppies (Poecilia reticulata). J Comp Psychol 122:344–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.122.4.344
Butlin RK, Hewitt GM, Webb SF (1985) Sexual selection for intermediate optimum in Chorthippus brunneus (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Anim Behav 33:1281–1292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(85)80188-3
Careau V, Killen SS, Metcalfe NB (2014) Adding fuel to the “fire of life”: energy budgets across levels of variation in ectotherms and endotherms. In: Martin LB, Ghalambor CK, Woods HA (eds) Integrative Organismal Biology, 1st edn. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Hoboken, New Jersey, pp 219–233
Caspi T, Johnson JR, Lambert MR et al (2022) Behavioral plasticity can facilitate evolution in urban environments. Trends Ecol Evol 37:1092–1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2022.08.002
Chamberlain DE, Kibuule M, Skeen RQ, Pomeroy D (2018) Urban bird trends in a rapidly growing tropical city. Ostrich 89:275–280. https://doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2018.1489908
Charmantier A, Demeyrier V, Lambrechts MM et al (2017) Urbanization is associated with divergence in pace-of-life in Great Tits. Front Ecol Evol 5:53. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00053
Cheptou P-O, Carrue O, Rouifed S, Cantarel A (2008) Rapid evolution of seed dispersal in an urban environment in the weed Crepis sancta. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:3796–3799. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0708446105
Coppens CM, de Boer SF, Koolhaas JM (2010) Co** styles and behavioural flexibility: towards underlying mechanisms. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 365:4021–4028. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0217
Cote J, Bestion E, Jacob S et al (2017) Evolution of dispersal strategies and dispersal syndromes in fragmented landscapes. Ecography 40:56–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.02538
Cote J, Clobert J, Brodin T et al (2010) Personality-dependent dispersal: characterization, ontogeny and consequences for spatially structured populations. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 365:4065–4076. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0176
Dammhahn M, Mazza V, Schirmer A et al (2020) Of city and village mice: behavioural adjustments of striped field mice to urban environments. Sci Rep 10:13056. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69998-6
Delnat V, Debecker S, Stoks R (2017) Integrating trait multidimensionality, predation and autotomy to explain the maintenance of boldness. Anim Behav 130:97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.06.014
Duckett PE, Stow AJ (2012) Levels of dispersal and tail loss in an Australian gecko (Gehyra variegata) are associated with differences in forest structure. Aust J Zool 59:170–176. https://doi.org/10.1071/ZO11055
Dufort MJ, Barker FK (2013) Range dynamics, rather than convergent selection, explain the mosaic distribution of red-winged blackbird phenotypes. Ecol Evol 3:4910–4924. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.859
Elsner N (1974) Neuroethology of sound production in gomphocerine grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae). J Comp Physiol 88:67–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00695923
Environmental Systems Research Institute (2014) ArcGIS 10.3
Environmental Systems Research Institute (2008) ArcGIS 9.3
Evans J, Boudreau K, Hyman J (2010) Behavioural syndromes in urban and rural populations of song sparrows. Ethology 116:588–595. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01771.x
Evans KL, Gaston KJ, Sharp SP et al (2009) The effect of urbanisation on avian morphology and latitudinal gradients in body size. Oikos 118:251–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2008.17092.x
Farina A, Gage SH (eds) (2017) Ecoacoustics: the ecological role of sounds, 1st edn. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Hoboken, New Jersey
Fleming PA, Bateman PW (2007) Just drop it and run: the effect of limb autotomy on running distance and locomotion energetics of field crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus). J Exp Biol 210:1446–1454. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02757
Fraser DF, Gilliam JF, Daley MJ et al (2001) Explaining leptokurtic movement distributions: intrapopulation variation in boldness and exploration. Am Nat 158:124–135. https://doi.org/10.1086/321307
Gao J, O’Neill BC (2020) Map** global urban land for the 21st century with data-driven simulations and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. Nat Commun 11:2302. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15788-7
Gardner JL, Peters A, Kearney MR et al (2011) Declining body size: a third universal response to warming? Trends Ecol Evol 26:285–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.03.005
Gibb H, Hochuli DF (2002) Habitat fragmentation in an urban environment: large and small fragments support different arthropod assemblages. Biol Conserv 106:91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(01)00232-4
Gillooly JF, Ophir AG (2010) The energetic basis of acoustic communication. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 277:1325–1331. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.2134
Green SV (1987) Acoustic and sexual behaviour in the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus (Thunberg). PhD Thesis, University of East Anglia
Halpin RN, Johnson JC (2014) A continuum of behavioral plasticity in urban and desert black widows. Ethology 120:1237–1247. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12297
Harris SM, Descamps S, Sneddon LU et al (2020) Personality predicts foraging site fidelity and trip repeatability in a marine predator. J Anim Ecol 89:68–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13106
Hendry AP, Farrugia TJ, Kinnison MT (2008) Human influences on rates of phenotypic change in wild animal populations. Mol Ecol 17:20–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03428.x
Hiyama A, Nohara C, Kinjo S et al (2012) The biological impacts of the Fukushima nuclear accident on the pale grass blue butterfly. Sci Rep 2:570. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00570
IBZ (2015) Chiffres de la population par province et par commune, a la date du 1er janvier 2015. https://www.ibz.rrn.fgov.be/fileadmin/user_upload/fr/pop/statistiques/population-bevolking-20150101.pdf. Accessed 11 Mar 2017
Jacqmin-Gadda H, Sibillot S, Proust C et al (2007) Robustness of the linear mixed model to misspecified error distribution. Comput Stat Data Anal 51:5142–5154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2006.05.021
Kaiser A, Merckx T, Van Dyck H (2020) An experimental test of changed personality in butterflies from anthropogenic landscapes. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 74:86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-020-02871-8
Kaiser A, Merckx T, Van Dyck H (2016) The Urban Heat Island and its spatial scale dependent impact on survival and development in butterflies of different thermal sensitivity. Ecol Evol 6:4129–4140. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.2166
Katz MJ (1988) Fractals and the analysis of waveforms. Comput Biol Med 18:145–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-4825(88)90041-8
Kelly CD, Tawes BR, Worthington AM (2014) Evaluating indices of body condition in two cricket species. Ecol Evol 4:4476–4487. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.1257
Kindvall O (1999) Dispersal in a metapopulation of the bush cricket, Metrioptera bicolor (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae). J Anim Ecol 68:172–185. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.1999.00273.x
Kralj-Fišer S, Schuett W (2014) Studying personality variation in invertebrates: why bother? Anim Behav 91:41–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.02.016
Kuriwada T, Shindome S, Tomita Y, Kawanishi M (2023) High incidence of leg autotomy in urban crickets. Behaviour 160:337–355. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-bja10206
Lampe U, Reinhold K, Schmoll T (2014) How grasshoppers respond to road noise: developmental plasticity and population differentiation in acoustic signalling. Funct Ecol 28:660–668. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12215
Lampe U, Schmoll T, Franzke A, Reinhold K (2012) Staying tuned: grasshoppers from noisy roadside habitats produce courtship signals with elevated frequency components. Funct Ecol 26:1348–1354. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12000
Lapiedra O, Chejanovski Z, Kolbe JJ (2017) Urbanization and biological invasion shape animal personalities. Glob Change Biol 23:592–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13395
Ligges U, Krey S, Mersmann O, Schnackenberg S (2016) tuneR: analysis of music. R package version 1.3.2. http://r-forge.r-project.org/projects/tuner/. Accessed 10 Nov 2017
Lowry H, Lill A, Wong BBM (2013) Behavioural responses of wildlife to urban environments. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 88:537–549. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12012
LRD (2015) Large-scale reference database, an object-oriented reference map of Flanders. https://www.agiv.be/international/ en/products/grb-en. Accessed 6 Feb 2015
Magura T, Lövei GL, Tóthmérész B (2010) Does urbanization decrease diversity in ground beetle (Carabidae) assemblages? Glob Ecol Biogeogr 19:16–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00499.x
Martin AE (2018) The spatial scale of a species’ response to the landscape context depends on which biological response you measure. Curr Landsc Ecol Rep 3:23–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40823-018-0030-z
Mathevon N, Aubin T, Vielliard J, et al (2008) Singing in the rain forest: how a tropical bird song transfers information. PLoS ONE 3:e1580. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001580
Mattila ALK, Hanski I (2014) Heritability of flight and resting metabolic rates in the Glanville fritillary butterfly. J Evol Biol 27:1733–1743. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.12426
Mccleery RA (2009) Changes in fox squirrel anti-predator behaviors across the urban–rural gradient. Landsc Ecol 24:483–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-009-9323-2
McIntyre NE, Rango JJ, Fagan WF, Faeth SH (2001) Ground arthropod community structure in a heterogeneous urban environment. Landsc Urban Plan 52:257–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00122-5
McKinney ML (2008) Effects of urbanization on species richness: a review of plants and animals. Urban Ecosyst 11:161–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4
McKinney ML (2006) Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol Conserv 127:247–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005
Merckx T, Souffreau C, Kaiser A et al (2018) Body-size shifts in aquatic and terrestrial urban communities. Nature 558:113–116. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0140-0
Merckx T, Van Dyck H (2019) Urbanization-driven homogenization is more pronounced and happens at wider spatial scales in nocturnal and mobile flying insects. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 28:1440–1455. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12969
Moll RJ, Cepek JD, Lorch PD et al (2020) At what spatial scale(s) do mammals respond to urbanization? Ecography 43:171–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.04762
Møller AP (2008) Flight distance of urban birds, predation, and selection for urban life. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 63:63–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0636-y
Møller AP, Jokimäki J, Skorka P, Tryjanowski P (2014) Loss of migration and urbanization in birds: a case study of the blackbird (Turdus merula). Oecologia 175:1019–1027. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-014-2953-3
Moule H, Michelangeli M, Thompson MB, Chapple DG (2016) The influence of urbanization on the behaviour of an Australian lizard and the presence of an activity–exploratory behavioural syndrome. J Zool 298:103–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12288
Ouyang JQ, Isaksson C, Schmidt C et al (2018) A new framework for urban ecology: an integration of proximate and ultimate responses to anthropogenic change. Integr Comp Biol 58:915–928. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icy110
Parris KM (2016) Ecology of Urban Environments, 1st edn. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom
Penone C, Kerbiriou C, Julien J-F et al (2012) Urbanisation effect on Orthoptera: which scale matters? Insect Conserv Divers 6:319–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-4598.2012.00217.x
Piano E, De Wolf K, Bona F et al (2017) Urbanization drives community shifts towards thermophilic and dispersive species at local and landscape scales. Glob Change Biol 23:2554–2564. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13606
Picaud F, Petit DP (2007) Primary succession of Acrididae (Orthoptera): differences in displacement capacities in early and late colonizers of new habitats. Acta Oecologica 32:59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2007.03.005
Ploner M, Kaider A, Heinze G (2015) SurvCorr: correlation of bivariate survival times. R package version 1.0. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=SurvCorr. Accessed 11 Dec 2017
Poulin NPN (2017) The effects of boldness on threat-sensitive decisions in fishes. Master’s Thesis, University of Saskatchewan
R Core Team (2017) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/. Accessed 2 Oct 2017
Réale DJF, Garant D, Humphries MM et al (2010) Personality and the emergence of the pace-of-life syndrome concept at the population level. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 365:4051–4063. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0208
Réale DJF, Reader SM, Sol D et al (2007) Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 82:291–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00010.x
Richards OW, Waloff N (1954) Studies on the biology and population dynamics of British grasshoppers. Anti-Locust Research Centre, London
Rochat E, Manel S, Deschamps-Cottin M et al (2017) Persistence of butterfly populations in fragmented habitats along urban density gradients: motility helps. Heredity 119:328–338. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2017.40
Royauté R, Greenlee K, Baldwin M, Dochtermann NA (2015) Behaviour, metabolism and size: phenotypic modularity or integration in Acheta domesticus? Anim Behav 110:163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.09.027
San Martin y Gomez G, Van Dyck H (2012) Ecotypic differentiation between urban and rural populations of the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus relative to climate and habitat fragmentation. Oecologia 169:125–133https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-011-2189-4
Sandberg U (2003) The multi-coincidence peak around 1000 Hz in tyre/road noise spectra. Naples, Italy, pp 1–8
Seto KC, Fragkias M, Güneralp B, Reilly MK (2011) A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion. PLoS ONE 6:e23777. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023777
Sih A, Ferrari MCO, Harris DJ (2011) Evolution and behavioural responses to human-induced rapid environmental change. Evol Appl 4:367–387. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00166.x
Sol D, Lapiedra O, González-Lagos C (2013) Behavioural adjustments for a life in the city. Anim Behav 85:1101–1112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.01.023
Sol D, Maspons J, Gonzalez-Voyer A et al (2018) Risk-taking behavior, urbanization and the pace of life in birds. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 72:59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-018-2463-0
Spiegel O, Leu ST, Bull CM, Sih A (2017) What’s your move? Movement as a link between personality and spatial dynamics in animal populations. Ecol Lett 20:3–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12708
Stahlschmidt ZR, Chang E (2021) Body condition indices are better surrogates for lean mass and water content than for body fat content in an insect. J Zool 315:131–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12909
Stevens VM, Trochet A, Blanchet S et al (2013) Dispersal syndromes and the use of life-histories to predict dispersal. Evol Appl 6:630–642. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12049
Sueur J, Aubin T, Simonis C (2008) Seewave, a free modular tool for sound analysis and synthesis. Bioacoustics 18:213–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/09524622.2008.9753600
Talavera JB, Carriere A, Swierk L, Putman BJ (2021) Tail autotomy is associated with boldness in male but not female water anoles. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 75:44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-021-02982-w
Therneau TM (2015) A package for survival analysis in S. R package version 2.38. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=survival. Accessed 10 Nov 2017
Therneau TM, Grambsch PM (2000) The Cox model. In: Therneau TM, Grambsch PM (eds) Modeling survival data: extending the Cox model. Springer, New York, pp 39–77
Thompson MJ, Capilla-Lasheras P, Dominoni DM et al (2022) Phenotypic variation in urban environments: mechanisms and implications. Trends Ecol Evol 37:171–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2021.09.009
Thompson MJ, Evans JC, Parsons S, Morand-Ferron J (2018) Urbanization and individual differences in exploration and plasticity. Behav Ecol 29:1415–1425. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/ary103
Tigreros N, Davidowitz G (2019) Chapter One - Flight-fecundity tradeoffs in wing-monomorphic insects. In: Jurenka R (ed) Advances in Insect Physiology. Academic Press, Cambridge, pp 1–41
Tuomainen U, Candolin U (2011) Behavioural responses to human-induced environmental change. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 86:640–657. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00164.x
van Baaren J, Candolin U (2018) Plasticity in a changing world: behavioural responses to human perturbations. Curr Opin Insect Sci 27:21–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2018.02.003
Van Dyck H, Baguette M (2005) Dispersal behaviour in fragmented landscapes: routine or special movements? Basic Appl Ecol 6:535–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2005.03.005
Van Dyck H, Holveck M-J (2016) Ecotypic differentiation matters for latitudinal variation in energy metabolism and flight performance in a butterfly under climate change. Sci Rep 6:36941. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36941
Van Dyck H, Matthysen E (1999) Habitat fragmentation and insect flight: a changing ‘design’ in a changing landscape? Trends Ecol Evol 14:172–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01610-9
Walters RJ, Hassall M (2006) The temperature-size rule in ectotherms: may a general explanation exist after all? Am Nat 167:510–523. https://doi.org/10.1086/501029
Walters RJ, Hassall M, Telfer MG et al (2006) Modelling dispersal of a temperate insect in a changing climate. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 273:2017–2023. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3542
Willott SJ, Hassall M (1998) Life-history responses of British grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) to temperature change. Funct Ecol 12:232–241. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2435.1998.00180.x
Wilson ADM, Whattam EM, Bennett R et al (2010) Behavioral correlations across activity, mating, exploration, aggression, and antipredator contexts in the European house cricket, Acheta domesticus. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 64:703–715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-009-0888-1
Acknowledgements
We thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, and Albittar L, Henneresse T, Kaiser A, Lebeau J, Merckx T, Pirnay M and Turlure C for help with our study. T Merckx also gave feedback on the manuscript. This is publication no BRC 404 of the Biodiversity Research Centre (Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain).
Funding
The research was done without external funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
GB, BW and HVD conceptualised the study. Experiments were conducted by GB and BW and analyses by GB and BW in interaction with HVD. All authors contributed to write the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Communicated by K. Shaw.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Waterschoot, B.O.G., Bataille, G. & Van Dyck, H. Spatial scale-dependent effects of urbanisation on phenotypic traits in a thermophilous grasshopper. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 77, 54 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-023-03325-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-023-03325-7