Abstract
When captured by a predator, the prey’s options for escape decrease dramatically; however, some species, such as dice snakes, display a wide variety of behaviours in order to escape. We explored how factors such as locality, body temperature, body size, sex, reproductive status (i.e. gravid vs. non-gravid), presence and state of injuries, and the presence of food affect the occurrence of behavioural displays in a capture situation within and among four free-ranging populations of dice snakes, Natrix tessellata (Colubridae). Our study shows that dice snakes regularly hiss, discharge their cloacal glands, and coat themselves in musk when captured, while other behaviours were displayed only occasionally. Our study corroborates previous findings of local differentiation in snake behaviour, especially the case of supposed Batesian mimicry in dice snakes. In three of four localities where the dice snake lives in proximity or in sympatry with nose-horned vipers, they display fake striking, with additional head flattening as opposed to the viper-free locality. Larger snakes exhibit a wider array of antipredator behaviours, which commonly include musking and hissing. Expectedly, warmer snakes were more likely to display vigorous antipredator behaviours such as struggling and striking. Injured snakes (a possible measure of a previous exposure to predation) displayed fewer behaviours and musked and hissed less. We call into question the analysis of isolated antipredator behavioural displays, and encourage using entire behavioural sequences in order to understand the complexity of antipredator behaviour.
Significance statement
A wrong decision when facing off a predator will likely result in death, which makes predation a major sha** force behind prey behaviour. Prey animals usually try to avoid being captured as escape becomes difficult, but some species, such as dice snakes, have a large arsenal of antipredator capture behaviours at their disposal. We examined nine different capture behaviours in dice snakes across four different localities. Our study corroborates previous findings that local adaptations, injuries, sex, size, body temperature, food, and reproductive status significantly influence antipredator behaviour on capture. However, our results also suggest that the entire sequence of capture behaviours displayed might be equally important as the occurrence of each behaviour. Therefore, future studies should avoid analysis of isolated antipredator behavioural displays and instead use entire behavioural sequences to understand the complexity of antipredator behaviour.
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Acknowledgements
Many thanks go to the students who considerably helped with gathering data in Serbia and Macedonia. We would also like to thank Mitko Tasevski, Antonio Tasevski, and Cveta Trajce for their hospitality and all the logistic help for organizing field trips to Konjsko, Golem Grad, and Mal Grad. We would also like to thank the Editor, Dr. Thomas Madsen, and the two anonymous reviewers whose comments significantly improved the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the Prespa-Ohrid Nature Trust and the Aage V. Jensen Foundation via PrespaNet’s “Prespa Project (2021–2024),” the Rufford Foundation (grant no. 30090–1), and the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (grants nos. 451–03-0133012020–14/2627, 451–03-9/2021–14/ 200178, 451–03-68/2022–14/ 200007). ML was funded by the FCT (ref. 2020.04790.BD).
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The research was done with the permission of the Ministry of Environmental Protection of Serbia (permit no. 353–01-409/2021–04) and Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning of North Macedonia (permit not. UP-11/1–418/2021). As no legislation concerning work on protected areas and species is implemented by the authorities in Albania, no permit was needed. All applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the use of animals were followed. The snakes were caught in the field, immediately tested, and kept in cotton bags until further processing, within approximately 2 h. Snakes were returned to the place of capture the same day. No snakes were injured during processing, and no snakes showed signs of distress at release.
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Bjelica, V., Anđelković, M., Lakušić, M. et al. A dicey situation: capture behaviours in free-ranging dice snakes. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 77, 48 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-023-03323-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-023-03323-9