Abstract
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a common material for fused deposition modeling (FDM), thanks to its affordability and biodegradability. However, modeling the behavior of 3D-printed PLA parts asks for an accurate material characterization. This paper is dedicated to highlight process and specimen structure parameters that should be considered in addition to the standards commonly used in the community. Two test standards for polymer tensile properties, ISO 527 and ASTM D638, are compared. These test standards have similar tensile results. However, the rupture location would suggest that they are not perfectly adapted to 3D printing, thus showing the difficulty in determining mechanical properties of 3D printed polymers. The main objective of this study is to identify which criterion, besides from printing parameters, influences the properties of 3D-printed PLA. First, different morphologies (presence of walls, top/bottom layers, overall thickness) of specimens are in tension. Tensile tests do not reveal significant difference in properties between the different specimens’ morphology. However, microscope observation of their rupture section showed presence of cracks in specimens printed with contours caused by poor adhesion between contours and infill. Then impact of room temperature aging is studied by carrying out a mechanical, chemical, and thermal analysis of 3D-printed PLA specimens stored in the dark at room temperature. The ductility of the specimen decreases with time and stabilizes 5 days after printing due to room temperature aging. This behavior may be caused by physical aging, hypothesis that has been validated by differential scanning calorimetry tests.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig5_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig7_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig8_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig9_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig10_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig11_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig12_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig13_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig14_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig15_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig16_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig17_HTML.jpg)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig18_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig19_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig20_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig21_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40964-024-00594-0/MediaObjects/40964_2024_594_Fig22_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Abbreviations
- \(\chi\) :
-
Degree of crystallinity (%)
- \(\Delta H_m\) :
-
Experimental melting enthalpy (J/g)
- \(\Delta H_m^0\) :
-
Melting enthalpy of a 100% crystalline material (J/g)
- \(\Delta H_c\) :
-
Enthalpy of crystallisation (J/g)
- Tg:
-
Glass transition temperature (°C)
- Tc:
-
Crystallisation temperature (°C)
- Tm:
-
Melting temperature (°C)
- PLA:
-
Poly (lactic acid)
- FDM:
-
Fused deposition modelling
- DSC:
-
Differential scanning calorimetry
- FTIR:
-
Fourier transform infrared
References
Cuellar JS, Smit G, Plettenburg D, Zadpoor A (2018) Additive manufacturing of non-assembly mechanisms. Addit Manuf 21:150–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.02.004
Merriam EG, Jones JE, Magleby SP, Howell LL (2013) Monolithic 2 DOF fully compliant space pointing mechanism. Mech Sci 4:381–390. https://doi.org/10.5194/ms-4-381-2013
Lussenburg K, Sakes A, Breedveld P (2021) Design of non-assembly mechanisms: a state-of-the-art review. Addit Manuf 39:101846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.101846
Kim H, Park E, Kim S, Park B, Kim N, Lee S (2017) Experimental study on mechanical properties of single- and dual-material 3D printed products. Procedia Manuf 10:887–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2017.07.076
Abeykoon C, Sri-Amphorn P, Fernando A (2020) Optimization of fused deposition modeling parameters for improved PLA and ABS 3D printed structures. Int J Lightweight Mater Manuf 3:284–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlmm.2020.03.003
Ferreira RTL, Amatte IC, Dutra TA, Bürger D (2017) Experimental characterization and micrography of 3D printed PLA and PLA reinforced with short carbon fibers. Compos Part B Eng 124:88–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.05.013
Ning F, Cong W, Qiu J, Wei J, Wang S (2015) Additive manufacturing of carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites using fused deposition modeling. Compos Part B Eng 80:369–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.06.013
Maqsood N, Rimašauskas M (2021) Characterization of carbon fiber reinforced PLA composites manufactured by fused deposition modeling. Compos Part C Open Access 4:100112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2021.100112
Giri J, Shahane P, Jachak S, Chadge R, Giri P (2021) Optimization of FDM process parameters for dual extruder 3d printer using artificial neural network. Mater Today Proc 43:3242–3249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.01.899
Corapi D, Morettini G, Pascoletti G, Zitelli C (2019) Characterization of a polylactic acid (PLA) produced by fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology. Proc Struct Integr 24:289–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2020.02.026
Kiendl J, Gao C (2020) Controlling toughness and strength of FDM 3D-printed PLA components through the raster layup. Compos Part B Eng 180:107562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107562
Yao T, Ye J, Deng Z, Zhang K, Ma Y, Ouyang H (2020) Tensile failure strength and separation angle of FDM 3D printing PLA material: experimental and theoretical analyses. Compos Part B Eng 188:107894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107894
Wang P, Zou B, Ding S, Li L, Huang C (2021) Effects of FDM-3D printing parameters on mechanical properties and microstructure of CF/PEEK and GF/PEEK. Chin J Aeronaut 34:236–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2020.05.040
Kuznetsov VE, Solonin AN, Tavitov A, Urzhumtsev O, Vakulik A (2020) Increasing strength of FFF three-dimensional printed parts by influencing on temperature-related parameters of the process. Rapid Prototyp J 26:107–121. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-01-2019-0017
Hanon MM, Dobos J, Zsidai L (2021) The influence of 3D printing process parameters on the mechanical performance of PLA polymer and its correlation with hardness. Proc Manuf 54:244–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2021.07.038
Rismalia M, Hidajat SC, Permana IGR, Hadisujoto B, Muslimin M, Triawan F (2019) Infill pattern and density effects on the tensile properties of 3D printed PLA material. J Phys Conf Ser 1402:044041. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1402/4/044041
Durga Prasada Rao V, Rajiv P, Navya Geethika V (2019) Effect of fused deposition modelling (FDM) process parameters on tensile strength of carbon fibre PLA. Mater Today Proc 18:2012–2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.06.009
Lokesh N, Praveena BA, Sudheer Reddy J, Vasu VK, Vijaykumar S (2022) Evaluation on effect of printing process parameter through Taguchi approach on mechanical properties of 3D printed PLA specimens using FDM at constant printing temperature. Mater Today Proc 52:1288–1293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.11.054
Niaounakis M, Kontou E, Xanthis M (2011) Effects of aging on the thermomechanical properties of poly(lactic acid). J Appl Polym Sci 119:472–481. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.32644
Khosravani MR, Božić Ž, Zolfagharian A, Reinicke T (2022) Failure analysis of 3D-printed PLA components: impact of manufacturing defects and thermal ageing. Eng Fail Anal 136:106214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106214
Pujari R (2021) Ageing performance of biodegradable PLA for durable applications, Thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology
Gil-Castell O, Badia JD, Kittikorn T, Strömberg E, Ek M, Karlsson S, Ribes-Greus A (2016) Impact of hydrothermal ageing on the thermal stability, morphology and viscoelastic performance of PLA/sisal biocomposites. Polym Degrad Stab 132:87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2016.03.038
Muthui ZW, Kamweru PK, Nderitu FG, Hussein SAG, Ngumbu R, Njoroge GN (2015) Polylactic acid (PLA) viscoelastic properties and their degradation compared with those of polyethylene. Int J Phys Sci 10:568–575. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJPS2015.4412
Hikmat M, Rostam S, Ahmed YM (2021) Investigation of tensile property-based Taguchi method of PLA parts fabricated by FDM 3D printing technology. Results Eng 11:100264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2021.100264
Rahmati A, Heidari-Rarani M, Lessard L (2021) A novel conservative failure model for the fused deposition modeling of polylactic acid specimens. Addit Manuf 48:102460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102460
Gavali VC, Kubade PR, Kulkarni HB (2020) Mechanical and thermo-mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic composite fabricated using fused deposition modeling method. Mater Today Proc 22:1786–1795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.012
Gao X, Qi S, Zhang D, Su Y, Wang D (2020) The role of poly (ethylene glycol) on crystallization, interlayer bond and mechanical performance of polylactide parts fabricated by fused filament fabrication. Addit Manuf 35:101414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101414
Dizon JRC, Espera AH, Chen Q, Advincula RC (2018) Mechanical characterization of 3D-printed polymers. Addit Manuf 20:44–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2017.12.002
International Organization for Standardization, ISO 527-1:2012 - Plastics - Dtermination of tensile properties - Part 2: Test conditions for moulding and extrusion plactics, (n.d.)
D20 Committee, Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics, ASTM International, n.d. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0638-14
International Organization for Standardization, ISO 527-1:2012 - Plastics - Determination of tensile properties - Part 1: Général principles, (2012)
Penu C, Helou M (2017) Acide polylactique (PLA). Plast Compos. https://doi.org/10.51257/a-v1-am3317
Xu Z, Fostervold R, Javad-Razavi SM (2021) Thickness effect on the mechanical behavior of PLA specimens fabricated via fused deposition modeling. Proc Struct Integr 33:571–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2021.10.063
Lay M, Thajudin NLN, Hamid ZAA, Rusli A, Abdullah MK, Shuib RK (2019) Comparison of physical and mechanical properties of PLA, ABS and nylon 6 fabricated using fused deposition modeling and injection molding. Compos Part B Eng 176:107341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107341
Orellana-Barrasa J, Ferrández-Montero A, Ferrari B, Pastor JY (2022) Natural ageing of PLA filaments, can it be frozen? Polymers 14:3361. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163361
Mngomezulu ME, Luyt AS, John MJ (2019) Morphology, thermal and dynamic mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid)/expandable graphite (PLA/EG) flame retardant composites. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 32:89–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892705717744830
Battegazzore D, Bocchini S, Frache A (2011) Crystallization kinetics of poly(lactic acid)-talc composites. Express Polym Lett 5:849–858. https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2011.84
Jia S, Yu D, Zhu Y, Wang Z, Chen L, Fu L (2017) Morphology crystallization and thermal behaviors of PLA-based composites: wonderful effects of hybrid GO/PEG via dynamic impregnating. Polymers 9:528. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9100528
ISO 11357-1:2016(en), Plastics—Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)—Part 1: General principles, (n.d.). https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:11357:-1:ed-3:v1:en (accessed January 31, 2024)
Karamanlioglu M, Alkan U (2019) Influence of time and room temperature on mechanical and thermal degradation of poly(lactic) acid. Therm Sci 23:383–390. https://doi.org/10.2298/TSCI181111051K
Chieng B, Ibrahim N, Yunus W, Hussein M (2013) Poly(lactic acid)/poly(ethylene glycol) polymer nanocomposites: effects of graphene nanoplatelets. Polymers 6:93–104. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym6010093
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully thank the Région Sud for its financial support through the co-financing of Morgane Domerg thesis supported by the company CES WORKS and carried out within the MAPIEM laboratory of the University of Toulon, France.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Domerg, M., Ostre, B., Belec, L. et al. Aging effects at room temperature and process parameters on 3D-printed poly (lactic acid) (PLA) tensile properties. Prog Addit Manuf (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00594-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00594-0