Introduction

The search for peace and stability is a fundamental objective in contemporary society, especially in regions affected by persistent conflicts and tensions. Throughout history, various strategies have been employed to promote peace and reconciliation between divided communities. One of the innovative and effective approaches in this regard is the use of sport as a tool for peacebuilding (Ubaidulloev, 2018).

In the 21st century, sport has ceased to be simply a form of entertainment or competition and has become a powerful social force for change. The ability of sport to bring people together, overcome cultural barriers and promote universal values has made it an effective vehicle for building peace and promoting peaceful coexistence (Cárdenas, 2013; Ubaidulloev, 2018).

The importance of this topic lies in its ability to have a positive impact on communities that have experienced prolonged conflict and violence (Aronson-Ensign, 2020). Sport for peace programs offer a unique opportunity to empower people, promote social inclusion and build bridges between groups in conflict (Cárdenas, 2013). As the world faces increasing challenges in terms of ethnic, religious and political divisions, understanding how sport can contribute to the development of peace becomes imperative (Adisa, Ifeta, & Adegbesan, 2021).

Due to this compelling need, over the years, a number of national governments and entities have promoted sport as a means to achieve development goals (Hozhabri, 2022). Indeed, one of the central approaches in which sport can deploy its maximum potential is the sustainable development goal number 16, “peace, justice and solid institutions”, outlined by the World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organization (Silveira, Martins, Gadelha, & Paes-Sousa, 2021). In this context, sport falls under the concept of “sport for development and peace” (SDP). SDP is defined as “the use of sport to exert a positive influence on public health, the socialization of children, youths and adults, the social inclusion of the disadvantaged, the economic development of regions and states, and on fostering intercultural exchange and conflict resolution” (Lyras & Peachey, 2011).

Given the broad spectrum of areas covered by the SDP, discussions of peace and reconciliation are often overshadowed by discussions of development. Although these areas are interrelated, sport for peace is not always directly and explicitly addressed (Forde et al., 2022). Therefore, it is imperative to also approach SDP from a peace-centered perspective. Peace is understood as “a condition in which individuals, families, groups, communities, and/or nations experience low levels of violence and engage in mutually harmonious relationships” (Anderson, 2004).

Previous work, such as the review by Schulenkorf, Sherry and Rowe (2016), has mapped and identified relevant literature in the field of SDP for development in general, without detailing the exact operation and contributions of peace initiatives. However, a more recent review identified organizations globally that operate in the context of SDP, with a more specific focus on sport for peace (Svensson & Woods, 2017). Despite this, these organizations, by focusing on SDP from various perspectives, relegate Anderson’s proposed definition of peace to the background. Also, as highlighted by Svensson and Woods (2017) in their review, most researchers in this field have relied on the International Platform for Sport and Development for the purpose of discerning and recognizing peace-oriented sport organizations and programs. However, they have noted that many of these entities use different names to register multiple times for the Beyond Sport Awards, thus, generating a dual publication bias. On the other hand, some researchers have mentioned the existence of a high number of SDP-focused organizations without specific support for their claims.

That said, and considering that sport has the potential to act as a bridge to build social connections between divided and conflicting communities, fostering peace, it is essential to identify projects in the SDP context that aim to promote the concept of peace in a more tangible way. Therefore, despite the efforts of researchers in this field to study and systematize sport for peace-related programs, there are still numerous aspects that need to be addressed and understood in order to consolidate sport as an effective strategy for change, conciliation and specifically promoting peace. Additionally, it is important to note that many emerging researchers in this field may need detailed information on existing programs in order to study, replicate or improve them.

In this context, a sco** review was proposed. This methodological design of evidence synthesis allows map** all the existing literature in an area of interest. Considering that the sports projects to be identified may be described in different types of studies, this approach was considered the most appropriate. Moreover, it is particularly useful when dealing with complex phenomena with great heterogeneity in methodological designs and an understanding of their nature is required (Pham et al., 2014). Unlike a systematic review, where it is not entirely plausible to combine different methodological designs for a particular purpose (Higgins, 2019), a sco** review offers flexibility to integrate a variety of sources and methodological approaches.

Thus, the purpose of this sco** review is to provide an overview of programs that use sport as a tool for peace development. This review seeks to identify the sources of publication, types of studies, sports or activities employed in these programs, countries where these experiences have been carried out, and key trends. Through a comprehensive analysis of the existing literature, it also seeks to shed light on the impact of these programs on conflict resolution, peacebuilding and the promotion of reconciliation. To achieve these objectives, this sco** review poses the following key questions (Q):

Q1.

What types of research designs, methodologies, and publication sources are common in sport for peace research?

Q2.

In which countries have sport for peace programs been implemented and which sports have been used most frequently in these programs?

Q3.

What are the most significant findings from previous studies and experiences related to sports for peace?

Methods

Study design

This study was conducted following the latest guidelines and recommendations of the Joanna Briggs Institute to conduct a sco** review of the study (Peters et al., 2022), considering that this methodological design allows for the analysis of heterogeneous methodologies to approach sport as a strategy for change and peacebuilding and that the result of its application will allow other researchers to access detailed information on the subject. Also, to ensure quality and methodological rigor, this review also adhered to the guidelines established by the PRISMA extension for sco** reviews (Tricco et al., 2018). These standards were rigorously applied throughout the process, from the initial search to the selection and analysis of the results obtained.

Search strategy and procedure

An exhaustive search was conducted with a deadline of September 22, 2023 in several databases, including Scopus, PubMed, SciELO and EBSCO. In addition, this search was replicated in Google Scholar with the aim of retrieving relevant documents related to the topic of study.

The search was conducted with the objective of compiling all relevant literature that addressed, described or analyzed any sport for peace-building program. For this purpose, the following search terms were used: “peace”, “tranquility”, “public order”, “harmony”, “social sport”, “community sport” and “recreation and sport”. Details of the search strategies, records and filters for each of the selected databases can be found in the Appendix.

Additionally, as part of the search process, a thorough review of cross-references and a manual search of highly relevant texts was conducted to ensure the completeness of the research and to obtain a greater number of results. This approach ensures that all relevant sources in the field of sport as a tool for peace in communities have been considered.

Types of studies

In this study, a comprehensive approach was taken to comprehensively compile all peacebuilding sport programs reported in the literature. Both primary and secondary studies were included, allowing for a comprehensive and diverse view of existing findings. That said, the targeted types of texts were case studies, clinical trials, cohort studies, case–control studies, systematic reviews, literature reviews, theoretical reviews, opinion pieces, editorials, essays, and letters to the editor.

Special care was taken to ensure the integrity and quality of the collected information. To this end, we included texts and data published in peer-reviewed scientific journals, as well as in renowned publishers and institutional repositories. These sources are recognized for their rigor and reliability in the presentation of information.

Evidence selection process

The text selection process for this sco** review was carried out in a rigorous and systematic way. Initially, the preliminary manuscripts returned during the search of each database were uploaded to the collaborative web-based application Rayyan (Ouzzani, Hammady, Fedorowicz, & Elmagarmid, 2016). Subsequently, two reviewers made an independent selection after analyzing the title and abstract of each text. Then, the reviewers carried out a second independent selection process after reading the complete texts that had been selected in the first phase. During these two stages of selection, in the event of discrepancies between the reviewers, a third reviewer was involved to facilitate reaching a consensus and reaching an agreement.

Texts that addressed, in some way, programs related to sport or physical activity aimed at promoting peace or resolving conflicts in a community were selected until September 2023, without language restriction. These programs had the possibility of being carried out anywhere in the world and could include various recognized sports modalities, as well as other forms of physical activity, such as dances, traditional games and directed physical activity sessions, among other approaches, and could be combined with other intervention strategies such as educational talks, awareness campaigns, among others. Manuscripts that simply mentioned the name of a sport and physical activity program or initiative for the promotion of peace, but lacked relevant information on its characteristics were excluded. In addition, those that merely mentioned the search terms and those whose focus on the sport or exercise program was not aimed at promoting peace, reconciliation or peaceful coexistence in a community were discarded.

This meticulous selection process made it possible to obtain a representative sample of texts that directly addressed the topic of interest and met the established inclusion criteria. The participation of multiple reviewers minimized bias and ensured completeness in the selection of relevant texts.

Analysis and categorization of information

In order to carry out a systematic review of the selected manuscripts, an analysis matrix in Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) format was used. This matrix was designed to efficiently categorize and structure the relevant information extracted from the texts included in the review. In this matrix, data corresponding to each selected manuscript were recorded, such as the title, authors, year of publication, journal of publication, country where the experience was developed, objectives, identified problems in the community, type of methodological design, characteristics of the sports program, primary and secondary results (if applicable), and conclusions. It is important to note that three researchers took responsibility for extracting and recording the information from the selected manuscripts independently in the Excel spreadsheet. Subsequently, they conducted a data exchange to reach a consensus regarding the information extracted from each of the manuscripts.

Results synthesis

A qualitative approach was adopted to present the results of this sco** review (Papaioannou, Sutton, & Booth, 2016). These results are presented in a narrative and illustrative way in the form of figures and tables that condense the relevant information and allow easy identification of the main results.

Results

Figure 1 shows the flow diagram, which provides a visual representation of the process followed during the research. This diagram shows the total number of articles obtained during the initial search, as well as the specific articles that have been selected for a more detailed and exhaustive analysis.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) flowchart suggested by Page et al. (2021)

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Table 1 shows the methodological designs used, the objectives pursued and the publication sources used in the selected studies. It is evident that case studies with a purely qualitative approach occupy a preeminent position in the research designs within this field, since a total of 14 articles were identified that resorted to this approach, in addition to one editorial and two reviews.

Table 1 Methodological designs used, objectives and publication sources in the selected studies
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Figure 2 shows the distribution and geographic trends of sports programs designed to promote peace. Colombia leads with the highest number of identified programs, with a total of four initiatives. It is followed by Israel with three initiatives, Palestine with two, and finally, Canada, Nigeria, Kosovo, Northern Ireland, Rwanda, Uganda, Russia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sri Lanka, Ukraine and Lebanon, each with one identified initiative.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Distribution and trends of sports programs aimed at promoting peace

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Table 2 analyzes the distribution and trends of the sports modalities used in sports programs aimed at promoting peace. It is evident that soccer is the overwhelmingly prevalent sport modality. However, other sports disciplines have also been identified as playing an important role in this initiative, such as Olympic walking, basketball, volleyball, martial arts and swimming.

Table 2 Distribution and trends of sports modalities used in sports programs aimed at promoting peace
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Table 3 Characteristics of the sports programs and strategies identified for the purpose of promoting peace.

Table 3 Characteristics of sports programs that promote peace in communities
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Discussion

This sco** review has mapped the literature related to sports programs aimed at promoting peace. The results reveal that various sport initiatives, scattered in different parts of the world, have been perceived as beneficial agents in overcoming existing divisions in communities and fostering environments of peace and tolerance. These benefits have been identified in a variety of contexts, ranging from conflict zones and armed demobilization (Dyck, 2011; Malnati et al., 2016; de-San-Eugenio et al., 2004). Consequently, sport programs that, although placed within the scope of the SDP, have not been specifically designed to address peace are excluded, as is the case of programs related to HIV/AIDS prevention (Kaufman, Spencer, & Ross, 2013), as well as programs aimed at facilitating socioeducational development in vulnerable communities, as illustrated in the case of the Olympic villages in Rio de Janeiro (Reis, Vieira, & Sousa-Mast, 2016).

It is also important to note that some significant experiences may not be documented in the conventional scientific or gray literature. A prominent example of this omission is the story shared by the former president of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos, during the National Chair on Sport, Identities and Peacebuilding held at the National University of Colombia. Santos, recipient of the 2016 Nobel Peace Prize for his key role in the peace agreements that ended more than 50 years of conflict between the Colombian State and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), recounted how he used sport as a tool to foster contact and dialogue between victims of the armed conflict, paramilitary groups and members belonging to the FARC (Universidad Nacional de Colombia | @TelevisionUNAL, 2020). This feat was achieved by organizing soccer matches between these communities. In this context, the former president showed remarkable audacity in identifying an activity of great interest worldwide and using it as a means to establish dialogue.

It is relevant to underline that the choice of soccer by the former president, like most of the sports experiences examined in this review, is not at all surprising. Given that soccer stands as a global phenomenon with the inherent capacity to convene multitudes of individuals, regardless of their ethnic, cultural and other particularities (Carrión, 2006). However, Washiya’s (2017) findings enrich the understanding of what joint participation in certain sports programs aimed at promoting peace through soccer might truly entail. Where playing together and sharing a space does not necessarily translate into a climate of peace or that the program itself is understood as an agent of peace in the population, but rather participants may choose to interact and tolerate each other’s presence simply to satisfy their desire to participate in the sporting activity, without this necessarily being rooted in a context of peace. Nevertheless, it is evident that when the community decides to show tolerance towards the other and play in their company in order to enjoy the sport or satisfy a personal desire, it is likely that spaces with a lower probability of conflict will be generated.

Finally, these findings have significant implications for both national government ministries and organizations worldwide. At the school level, ministries of education in different countries could consider the implementation of sports programs as an effective tool to promote peace and combat bullying and violence in schools. Similarly, ministries of culture could take advantage of these programs to address discrimination and racism towards ethnic cultures, using sport as a means to promote tolerance and respect for ethnic and cultural diversity within communities. In addition, at the global level, it is critical that international organizations continue to research and promote the implementation of sport programs in conflict contexts. It is worth noting that while soccer is the preferred choice for develo** these programs, there is a lack of information on other sports modalities or even on indigenous or traditional games and sports of ethnic communities. It is therefore essential to explore various sports alternatives in these contexts.

Conclusions

Sport is presented as a tool to promote peace in diverse contexts of conflict, violence and community division. The capacity of sport to be instrumentalized for peaceful purposes is remarkable, and can even surpass the capacity of States to regulate and resolve conflicts, or reinforce the peacebuilding initiatives undertaken by these States. So far, most published and reported research has addressed this phenomenon through qualitative approaches based on case studies. In addition, it is important to mention that globally, the predominant choice for develo** these programs has been soccer.