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Improving energy use in schools: from IEQ towards energy-efficient planning—method and in-field application to two case studies

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Abstract

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and energy conservation in schools are complex challenges. A significant part of the energy demand in these buildings addresses ventilation and temperature indoors. When confronted with money/energy constraints, the tendency of school boards is to cut on IEQ requirements, compromising the comfort of the occupants or worse, their health. Besides local energy production, either electrical or heating, major focus on building management systems’ (BMS) operation has been suggested, aiming at develo** evidence-based energy conservation measures. Based on two field studies, a joint approach of energy and IEQ auditing was developed, establishing a state of the art of the current situation of the secondary schools in Portugal. The present study aims at enhancing energy efficiency in schools unveiling that it is possible to improve the HVAC systems’ operation and optimize energy use and costs, while maintaining good environmental conditions. This paper also seeks to contribute to the implementation of energy efficiency plans (EEP) in school buildings, presenting a comprehensive methodological approach on energy consumption in this typology of buildings, centred on the fundamental role of BMS and their proper programming. The obtained results show that there is a considerable potential for reducing energy consumption and improving energy use—in one of the schools by simply adjusting the BMS operation schedule, a decrease between 20 and 36% of the useful thermal energy consumption is expected (14.1–24.7 kWh/m2); in other occasions, a significant IEQ improvement is expected due to longer HVAC running period.

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Notes

  1. The IAQ and TC assessment methodology used in the 3Es project has been earlier published in 2013 (Dias Pereira et al. 2014b). The integrated approach (IEQ + energy audit) presented in (Bernardo and Dias Pereira 2014), applied to another case study was later published in (Bernardo et al. 2016).

  2. During the scholar year 2011/12 over 36,200 meals were prepared in MTS, while in MMV this number equals 9900.

  3. Only very few classrooms were occupied between 22:55–23:45.

  4. PD(%) = 395*EXP (-15,15*CCO2^-0,25) (Gameiro da Silva 2009)—where PD stands for percentage of dissatisfied and CCO2 for the CO2 concentration.

  5. The following conditions were considered: AHU’s absorbed power 1.9 + 2.0 kW (supply + extraction fan power); supply air equal to extract air – 9600 m3/h, Heat Recovery Efficiency = 50%. Moreover, 75% of recirculation air was considered, 7200 m3/h, i.e. exhaust air equals 2400 m3/h.

  6. These maintenance plans have already been defined at the consignment/construction phase. The warranty of the equipment actually depends on the compliance of these plans.

Abbreviations

3Es :

Energy Efficient Schools project (in Portuguese: Escolas Energeticamente Eficientes)

AHU:

Air handling unit

BAC:

Building automation and control

BMS:

Building management systems

CCO2 :

CO2 concentration

CRT:

Cathodic ray tube

DHW:

Domestic hot water

ECM:

Energy conservation measures

EEP:

Energy efficiency plan(s)

EM:

Energy manager

EPBD:

Energy Performance of Buildings Directive

EU:

European Union

EUI:

Energy use indicator

EVS:

Electronic variable-speed

εV :

Ventilation efficiency

GFA:

Gross floor area

HDD:

Heating degree days

HRU:

Heat recovery unit

HVAC:

Heating ventilation and air conditioning

IAQ:

Indoor air quality

IEQ:

Indoor environmental quality

IU:

Indoor unit

LV:

Low-voltage

MMV:

Montemor-o-Velho (school located in)

MTS:

Matosinhos (school located in)

MV:

Mechanical ventilation

NG:

Natural gas

PD:

Percentage of dissatisfied

Q :

Fresh air flow rates (m3/h)

R&D:

Research and development

SCE:

Energy Certification System (in Portuguese: Sistema de Certificação Energética dos Edifícios)

Ta:

Air temperature

TC:

Thermal comfort

TUFA:

Total useful floor area

VRF:

Variable refrigerant flow

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Acknowledgements

The presented work is part of a wider research project, entitled Energy Efficient Schools (Escolas Energeticamente Eficientes, 3Es), granted by Teixeira Duarte on the framework of the Portuguese Program of R&D Projects associated to Large Public Tenders. The authors are thankful to Parque Escolar E.P.E. for the provision of the database on the Portuguese secondary schools. The presented work is framed under the Energy for Sustainability Initiative of the University of Coimbra and LAETA (Associated Laboratory for Energy, Transports and Aeronautics) Project Pest E/EME/LA0022/2011 and was supported by the Foundation for Science and Technology under grant SFRH/BD/77105/2011.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. ADAI, LAETA – Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Rua Luis Reis Santos, 3030-789, Coimbra, Portugal

    Luísa Dias Pereira, Francisco Bispo Lamas & Manuel Gameiro da Silva

  2. University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

    Luísa Dias Pereira & Manuel Gameiro da Silva

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  1. Luísa Dias Pereira
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Appendices

Appendix A

Table 9 MTS | The supplier schedule for active energy prices in winter and summer
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Table 10 MMV | Main automatic system operational time (Monday–Friday)
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Table 11 Synthesis of the MTS’ AHUs and corresponding fresh air flow rates (Q)
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Table 12 MMV | Summary of the equipment and corresponding fresh air flow rates (Q) into various spaces (estimated upon the prescriptive method)
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Fig. 6
figure 6

MMV | Space investigator of the graphical interface provided by the manufacturer. Detailed information on building A2 (a). Detailed view module of the HRU 2 (the unit serving building A2) on the BMS (b)

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Fig. 7
figure 7

MTS | Load diagrams obtained during energy consumption monitoring, 19th April–25th April 2013 (25th April is a national holiday in Portugal). a Main LV board. b Thermal power plant electrical board

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Fig. 8
figure 8

MMV | Detailed view module of the HRU3 in the BMS

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Fig. 9
figure 9

MMV | One classroom occupancy time-table (accompanied by HRU 3 operation schedule—in red)

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Appendix B

ITC and lighting systems in the case studies

As regards energy-using equipment, e.g. IT equipment such as personal computers (PC), inter-active or video projectors, the account is summarized in Fig. 10 [screens were divided in CRT (Cathodic Ray Tube) and TFT/LCD (thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display)].

In order to reduce the energy consumption of unused computers in MTS, a computer network management system is programmed to send two types of shutdowns to the computers when they stay connected but without use. The first order is at 19:00 (by the end of the daytime classes); the second order is at 00:00 and it is coincident with the end of the night classes. As regards the video projectors, according to the collected information, programed shutdown is not possible due to the lack of network points.

Relating lighting, in MTS there is a widespread use of luminaires equipped with fluorescent lamps. The majority of the spaces is equipped with T5 fluorescent lamps powered 49 W with electronic ballasts (83% of the lighting installed power). There are also presence sensors, both in bathrooms and cloakrooms serving the shower rooms. More data are presented in Table 13.

As in MTS, in MMV motion detectors were considered both in bathrooms and cloakrooms serving the shower rooms. Nevertheless, during our visits, the doors in these spaces were frequently halted, corrupting the sensors control, ‘activating people presence’ even in their absence. This was verified in two different situations: in the bathrooms serving the Cafeteria and Dining area, and in the cloakrooms in the Gym. Naturally, this situation does also compromise the mechanical ventilation system operation. In MMV, T5 fluorescent lamps represent 69% of the total lighting installed power.

In comparison to MTS, MMV classrooms, both ‘typical’ and ‘workshop’ present higher power to floor ratios—26.2 /23.6 W/m2 vs. 21.9/22.2 W/m2. In contrast to MTS, in MMV there is not a computer network management system programed to shut down the computers or projectors.

As stated in the main text, the BMS in MTS does not allow lighting control. In MMV, instead, lighting is partially controlled from the BMS: in fact, the information presented in Table 14, on buildings A1-S and the Gym, only regards corridors (levels 0 and 1). The time operation is defined as Always active since the circulation areas are also provided of twilight sensors. A3 schedule had been temporarily changed because it was verified that some cells were broken and were waiting to be replaced. The library schedule corresponded to the time occupancy of this space.

Table 13 MTS | Summary of two types of classrooms (based on two IAQ monitored classrooms). Main characteristics and power loads
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Table 14 MMV | Lighting systems operational time (Monday–Friday)
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Fig. 10
figure 10

IT equipment synthesis

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Dias Pereira, L., Bispo Lamas, F. & Gameiro da Silva, M. Improving energy use in schools: from IEQ towards energy-efficient planning—method and in-field application to two case studies. Energy Efficiency 12, 1253–1277 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-018-9742-5

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