SpringerLink
Log in

Role of Gesturing Onscreen Instructors in Video Lectures: A Set of Three-level Meta-analyses on the Embodiment Effect

  • META-ANALYSIS
  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although gesturing onscreen instructors are widely included in video lectures, it is still unclear whether, when, and how they are conducive to learning. To clarify this issue, we conducted a set of three-level meta-analyses of 662 effect sizes from 83 articles, spanning Web of Science, PsycINFO, ERIC, Education Research Complete, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, and Google Scholar up to March 2024. We included randomized controlled trials of gesturing instructors in multimedia learning, measuring retention test score, transfer test score, fixation time, fixation count, cognitive load, and/or social perception across all languages of publication. Funnel plot and Egger sandwich test were used to assess risk of bias. Results showed that adding gesturing instructors improved retention (g = 0.28, 95% CI:[0.19,0.37]) and transfer test scores (g = 0.31, 95% CI:[0.21,0.41]), yielding an embodiment effect. This effect was stronger when the instructor displayed deictic, metaphorical, or a mixture of multiple gestures; when the instructor in the control condition was not visible; when the lecture was learner-paced and longer. Moreover, it increased learners’ social connection ratings and eye fixation time and count on core learning material (but only when deictic gestures were used). Thus, gesturing onscreen instructors may promote learning by social and cognitive paths, deepening our understanding of the role of gesturing onscreen instructors in multimedia learning and providing guidance for designing effective video lectures. More studies with clear experimental descriptions and eye-tracking studies are needed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Germany)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

References

Note. Study with * are included in the meta-analysis.

  • *Aldugom, M. (2022). Exploring the underlying mechanisms of the beneficial effect of gesture on mathematical learning (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Iowa).

  • *Aldugom, M., Fenn, K., & Cook, S. W. (2020). Gesture during math instruction specifically benefits learners with high visuospatial working memory capacity. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 5(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00215-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Algana, M. S. A. (2021). L2 English listeners' comprehension: An examination of the effects of visual cues and nonnative accented speech. Michigan State University.

  • Alpizar, D., Adesope, O. O., & Wong, R. M. (2020). A meta-analysis of signaling principle in multimedia learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(5), 2095–2119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09748-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altaie, A., Saddik, B., Alsaegh, M., Soliman, S., Hamoudi, R., & Samaranayake, L. (2021). Prevalence of unculturable bacteria in the periapical abscess: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 16(8), e0255485. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255485

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Assink, M., & Wibbelink, C. J. M. (2016). Fitting three-level meta-analytic models in R: A step-by-step tutorial. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.12.3.p154

  • *Atkinson, R. K. (2002). Optimizing learning from examples using animated pedagogical agents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 416–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.2.416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Austin, E. E., Sweller, N., & Van Bergen, P. (2018). Pointing the way forward: Gesture and adults’ recall of route direction information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 24(4), 490–508. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Baylor, A. L., & Kim, S. (2009). Designing nonverbal communication for pedagogical agents: When less is more. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 450–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.10.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Baylor, A. L., & Ryu, J. (2003). The effect of image and animation in enhancing pedagogical agent persona. Educational Computing Research, 28(4), 373–395. https://doi.org/10.2190/V0WQ-NWGN-JB54-FAT4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Beege, M., Ninaus, M., Schneider, S., Nebel, S., Schlemmel, J., Weidenmüller, J., . . . Rey, G. D. (2020). Investigating the effects of beat and deictic gestures of a lecturer in educational videos. Computers & Education, 156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103955

  • Beege, M., Schroeder, N. L., Heidig, S., Günter Daniel Rey, & Schneider, S. (2023). The instructor presence effect and its moderators in instructional video: A series of meta-analyses. Educational Research Review, 100564(1747–938X). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100564

  • *Ben Chikha, H., Zoudji, B., & Khacharem, A. (2023). An eye-tracking study of how coach’s nonverbal communication affects memorization of basketball tactical scenes. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 18(6), 1964–1977. https://doi.org/10.1177/17479541231177003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Bergmann, K., & Macedonia, M. (2013). A virtual agent as vocabulary trainer: Iconic gestures help to improve learners’ memory performance. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 8102, 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-40415-3_12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Carlotto, T., & Jaques, P. A. (2016). The effects of animated pedagogical agents in an english-as-a-foreign-language learning environment. International Journal of Human - Computer Studies, 95, 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2016.06.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Carlson, C., Jacobs, S. A., Perry, M., & Breckinridge Church, R. (2014). The effect of gestured instruction on the learning of physical causality problems. Gesture, 14(1), 26–45. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.14.1.02car

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassell, J., Sullivan, J., Prevost, S., & Churchill, E. (2000). Embodied conversational agents. MIT Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • *Choi, S., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Cognitive and affective benefits of an animated pedagogical agent for learning English as a second language. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(4), 441–466. https://doi.org/10.2190/A064-U776-4208-N145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/14805-018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, S. W., Friedman, H. S., Duggan, K. A., Cui, J., & Popescu, V. (2017). Hand gesture and mathematics learning: Lessons from an Avatar. Cognitive Science, 41(2), 518–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Colliot, T., & Jamet, E. (2018). Understanding the effects of a teacher video on learning from a multimedia document: An eye-tracking study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 66(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-9594-x

  • *Congdon, E. L., Novack, M. A., Brooks, N., Hemani-Lopez, N., O’Keefe, L., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2017). Better together: Simultaneous presentation of speech and gesture in math instruction supports generalization and retention. Learning and Instruction, 50, 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.03.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, M., & Visser, R. (2014). Multimedia presentations of mitosis: An examination of split-attention, modality, redundancy, and cueing. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 23(2), 145–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Craig, S. D., Gholson, B., & Driscoll, D. M. (2002). Animated pedagogical agents in multimedia educational environments: Effects of agent properties, picture features and redundancy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 428–434. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.2.428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Craig, S. D., Twyford, J., Irigoyen, N., & Zipp, S. A. (2015). A test of spatial contiguity for virtual human’s gestures in multimedia learning environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 53(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633115585927

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Dargue, N., & Sweller, N. (2018). Donald Duck’s garden: The effects of observing iconic reinforcing and contradictory gestures on narrative comprehension. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 175, 96–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.06.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Dargue, N., & Sweller, N. (2020). Two hands and a tale: When gestures benefit adult narrative comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 68(101331). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101331

  • Dargue, N., Sweller, N., & Jones, M. P. (2019). When our hands help us understand: A meta-analysis into the effects of gesture on comprehension. Psychological Bulletin, 145(8), 765–784. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Davis, R., & Antoneko, P. (2017). Effects of pedagogical agent gestures on social acceptance and learning: Virtual real relationships in an elementary foreign language classroom. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 28(4), 459–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, R. O. (2018). The impact of pedagogical agent gesturing in multimedia learning environments: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 24, 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.05.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Davis, R. O., & Vincent, J. (2019). Sometimes more is better: Agent gestures, procedural knowledge and the foreign language learner. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(6), 3252–3263. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12732

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Davis, R. O., Vincent, J., & Wan, L. (2021a). Does a pedagogical agent’s gesture frequency assist advanced foreign language users with learning declarative knowledge? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 18, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00256-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Davis, R. O., Wan, L. L., Vincent, J., & Lee, Y. J. (2021b). The effects of gesture frequency and reduced video speed on virtual human persona and learning outcomes. Educational Techonology Research and Development, 69(5), 2331–2352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-021-10010-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *de Nooijer, J. A., van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Zwaan, R. A. (2014). Words in action: Using gestures to improve verb learning in primary school children. Gesture, 14(1), 46–69. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.14.1.03noo

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Dirkin, K. H., Mishra, P., & Altermatt, E. (2005). All or nothing: Levels of sociability of a pedagogical software agent and its impact on student perceptions and learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 14(2), 113–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Drobisz, J. (2017). The Effects of Arousal Presented by a Pedagogical Agent on English Language Learners' Situational Interest, Cognitive Load and Reading Comprehension in Online Reading Tasks.

  • *Dunsworth, Q., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007). Fostering multimedia learning of science: Exploring the role of an animated agent’s image. Computers & Education, 49(3), 677–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal, 315(7109), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiorella, L. (2022). The embodiment principle in multimedia learning. In L. Fiorella & R. E. Mayer (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 286–295). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108894333.030

  • *Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). Effects of observing the instructor draw diagrams on learning from multimedia messages. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(4), 528–546. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000065

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2022). Principles based on social cues in multimedia learning: Personalization, voice, image, and embodiment principles. In R. E. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 277–285). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108894333.029

  • *Fogarty, A. J. (2018). The Role of Instructional Gesture in Learning Science Concepts in Undergraduate Students.

  • *Frechette, C., & Moreno, R. (2010). The roles of animated pedagogical agents’ presence and nonverbal communication in multimedia learning environments. Journal of Media Psychology, 22(2), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, S., Assink, M., Cipriani, A., & Lin, K. (2017). Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 57, 59–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gehlbach, H. (2010). The social side of school: Why teachers need social psychology. Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9138-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Gluhareva, D., & Prieto, P. (2017). Training with rhythmic beat gestures benefits L2 pronunciation in discourse-demanding situations. Language Teaching Research, 21(5), 609–631. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168816651463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Hearing gesture: How our hands help us think. Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, P. J., Kim, J., & Rubin, R. (2014). How video production affects student engagement: An empirical study of mooc videos. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the first ACM conference on Learning@ scale conference.

  • *Hall, C. (2020). Gesture as a bridge between non-declarative and declarative knowledge (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago).

  • Harrison, R., Jones, B., Gardner, P., & Lawton, R. (2021). Quality assessment with diverse studies (QuADS): An appraisal tool for methodological and reporting quality in systematic reviews of mixed-or multi-method studies. BMC Health Services Research, 21(144), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06122-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Hasegawa, D., Shirakawa, S., Shioiri, N., Hanawa, T., Sakuta, H., & Ohara, K. (2015). The effect of metaphoric gestures on schematic understanding of instruction performed by a pedagogical conversational agent. Paper presented at the The 17th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Los Angels, USA.

  • Hasler, B. S., Kersten, B., & Sweller, J. (2007). Learner control, cognitive load and instructional animation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21(6), 713–729. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (2014). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Heidari, K. (2015). An investigation into the role of gesture in enhancing children’s vocabulary command. International Journal of Early Years Education, 23(4), 382–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2015.1074556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heidig, S., & Clarebout, G. (2011). Do pedagogical agents make a difference to student motivation and learning? Educational Research Review, 6(1), 27–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.07.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Höffler, T. N., & Schwartz, R. N. (2011). Effects of pacing and cognitive style across dynamic and non-dynamic representations. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1716–1726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.03.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Horovitz, T., & Mayer, R. E. (2021). Learning with human and virtual instructors who display happy or bored emotions in video lectures. Computers in Human Behavior, 119, 106724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106724

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hostetter, A. B. (2011). When do gestures communicate? A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 297–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (2015). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  • *Ianì, F., & Bucciarelli, M. (2017). Mechanisms underlying the beneficial effect of a speaker’s gestures on the listener. Journal of Memory and Language, 96, 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2017.05.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Igualada, A., Esteve-Gibert, N., & Prieto, P. (2017). Beat gestures improve word recall in 3- to 5-year-old children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 156, 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.11.017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Johnson, A. M., Ozogul, G., Moreno, R., & Reisslein, M. (2013). Pedagogical agent signaling of multiple visual engineering representations: The case of the young female agent. Journal of Engineering Education, 102(2), 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Johnson, A. M., Ozogul, G., & Reisslein, M. (2015). Supporting multimedia learning with visual signalling and animated pedagogical agent: Moderating effects of prior knowledge. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31(2), 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12078

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S. (2022). The expertise reversal principle in multimedia learning In R. E. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 171–181): Cambridge University Press.

  • Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Kang, S., Hallman, G. L., Son, L. K., & Black, J. B. (2013). The different benefits from different gestures in understanding a concept. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 22(6), 825–837. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-012-9433-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kartalkanat, H., & Göksun, T. (2020). The effects of observing different gestures during storytelling on the recall of path and event information in 5-year-olds and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 189, 104725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104725

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Kelly, S. D., McDevitt, T., & Esch, M. (2009). Brief training with co-speech gesture lends a hand to word learning in a foreign language. Language and Cognitive Processes, 24(2), 313–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960802365567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Kelly, S. D., & Goldsmith, L. H. (2004). Gesture and right hemisphere involvement in evaluating lecture material. Gesture, 4(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.4.1.03kel

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kester, L., & van Merriënboer, J. (2022). Implications of the four component instructional design model for multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 100–120). Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, K. (2008). Performance, perception, and choice of animated pedagogical agent. Paper presented at the Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A.

  • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., Kirschner, F., & Zambrano, R. (2018). From cognitive load theory to collaborative cognitive load theory. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 13(2), 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-018-9277-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. Y., Donkers, J., Jarodzka, H., Sellenraad, G., & van Merriënboer, J. (2020). Different effects of pausing on cognitive load in a medical simulation game. Computers in Human Behavior, 110, 106385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106385

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leslie, K. C., Low, R., **, P., & Sweller, J. (2012). Redundancy and expertise reversal effects when using educational technology to learn primary school science. Educational Technology Research and Development, 60, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-011-9199-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lester, J. C., Converse, S. A., Kahler, S. E., Barlow, S. T., Stone, B. A., & Bhogal, R. S. (1997). The persona effect: Affective impact of animated pedagogical agents. Paper presented at the meeting of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human factors in computing systems, New York.

  • *Li, W., Wang, F., & Mayer, R. E. (2023). How to guide learners' processing of multimedia lessons with pedagogical agents. Learning and Instruction, 84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101729.

  • *Li, W., Wang, F., & Mayer, R. E. (2024). Increasing the realism of on-screen embodied instructors creates more looking but less learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12677

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Li, W., Wang, F., Mayer, R. E., & Liu, H. (2019). Getting the point: Which kinds of gestures by pedagogical agents improve multimedia learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(8), 1382–1395. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Li, W., Wang, F., Mayer, R. E., & Liu, T. (2022). Animated pedagogical agents enhance learning outcomes and brain activity during learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(7), 621–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12634

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Lusk, M. M., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007). Animated pedagogical agents: Does their degree of embodiment impact learning from static or animated worked examples? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21(6), 747–764. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lüdecke, D. (2019). esc: Effect Size Computation for Meta Analysis (Version 0.5.1). 10.5281/zenodo.1249218

  • *Macoun, A., & Sweller, N. (2016). Listening and watching: The effects of observing gesture on preschoolers’ narrative comprehension. Cognitive Development, 40, 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2016.08.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E. (2010). Unique contributions of eye-tracking research to the study of learning with graphics. Learning and Instruction, 20(2), 167–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E. (2021a). Multimedia learning (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316941355

  • Mayer, R. E. (2021b). Evidence-based principles for how to design effective instructional videos. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 10, 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2021.03.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E. (2022). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 57–72): Cambridge University Press.

  • *Mayer, S. A. (2009). The role of learners’ questions and instructors’ voice and gestures in the comprehension of lessons. University of California.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Mayer, R. E., & DaPra, C. S. (2012). An embodiment effect in computer-based learning with animated pedagogical agents. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18(3), 239–252. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028616

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2022). Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 3–16): Cambridge University Press.

  • *Meier, J., de Jong, B., van Montfort, D. P., Verdonschot, A., van Wermeskerken, M., & van Gog, T. (2023). Do social cues in instructional videos affect attention allocation, perceived cognitive load, and learning outcomes under different visual complexity conditions? Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 39(4), 1339–1353. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12803

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merlin, T., Weston, A., & Tooher, R. (2009). Extending an evidence hierarchy to include topics other than treatment: Revising the Australian ‘levels of evidence.’ BMC Medical Research Methodology, 9, 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-9-34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Moon, J., & Ryu, J. (2021). The effects of social and cognitive cues on learning comprehension, eye-gaze pattern, and cognitive load in video instruction. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 33(1), 39–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-020-09255-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Moreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001). The case for social agency in computer-based teaching: Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical agents. Cognition and Instruction, 19(2), 177–213. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532690XCI1902_02

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Moreno, R., Reislein, M., & Ozogul, G. (2010). Using virtual peers to guide visual attention during learning: A test of the persona hypothesis. Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 22(2), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mori, M., MacDorman, K. F., & Kageki, N. (2012). The uncanny valley [from the field]. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, 19(2), 98–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mutlu-Bayraktar, D., Cosgun, V., & Altan, T. (2019). Cognitive load in multimedia learning environments: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 141, 103618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103618

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Ouwehand, K., van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2015a). Designing effective video-based modeling examples using gaze and gesture cues. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(4), 78–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Ouwehand, K., van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2015b). Effects of gestures on older adults’ learning from video-based models. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29(1), 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3097

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2022). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 73–81). Cambridge University Press.

  • *Pi, Z., Hong, J., & Yang, J. (2017). Effects of the instructor’s pointing gestures on learning performance in video lectures. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(4), 1020–1029. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12471

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pi, Z., Liu, W., Ling, H., Zhang, X., & Li, X. (2023). Does an instructor's facial expressions override their body gestures in video lectures? Computers & Education, 193(104679.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104679

  • Pi, Z., Liu, R., Ling, H., Zhang, X., Wang, S., & Li, X. (2022a). The emotional design of an instructor: body gestures do not boost the effects of facial expressions in video lectures. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2105898

  • *Pi, Z., Zhang, Y., Yang, J., Hu, W., & Yang, H. H. (2019a). All roads lead to rome: Instructors’ pointing and depictive gestures in video lectures promote learning through different patterns of attention allocation. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 43(4), 549–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-019-00310-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Pi, Z., Zhang, Y., Yu, Q., Zhang, Y., Yang, J., & Zhao, Q. (2021a). Neural oscillations and learning performance vary with an instructor’s gestures and visual materials in video lectures. British Journal of Educational Technology, 53(1), 93–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Pi, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhu, F., Xu, K., Yang, J., & Hu, W. (2019b). Instructors’ pointing gestures improve learning regardless of their use of directed gaze in video lectures. Computers & Education, 128, 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.10.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Pi, Z., Zhu, F., Zhang, Y., Chen, L., & Yang, J. (2022b). Complexity of visual learning material moderates the effects of instructor’s beat gestures and head nods in video lectures. Learning and Instruction, 77, 101520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Pi, Z., Zhu, F., Zhang, Y., & Yang, J. (2021b). An instructor’s beat gestures facilitate second language vocabulary learning from instructional videos: Behavioral and neural evidence. Language Teaching Research https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211039023

  • Polat, H. (2023). Instructors’ presence in instructional videos: A systematic review. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 8537–8569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11532-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Ramlatchan, M. (2016). Multimedia Design, Learning Effectiveness, and Student Perceptions of Instructor Credibility and Immediacy.

  • Rey, G. D., Beege, M., Nebel, S., Wirzberger, M., Schmitt, T. H., & Schneider, S. (2019). A meta-analysis of the segmenting effect. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 389–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9456-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richter, J., Scheiter, K., & Eitel, A. (2018). Signaling text–picture relations in multimedia learning: The influence of prior knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110, 544–560. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, M. A., & Pustejovsky, J. E. (2021). Evaluating meta-analytic methods to detect selective reporting in the presence of dependent effect sizes. Psychological Methods, 26(2), 141–160. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Rueckert, L., Church, R. B., Avila, A., & Trejo, T. (2017). Gesture enhances learning of a complex statistical concept. Cognitive Research Principles and Implications, 2(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-016-0036-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Ruitenberg, H. (2020). Handy or harmful? The effect of gesture use on second language learning of concrete versus abstract words (Unpublished bachelor’s thesis). Radboud Universiteit.

  • *Saksiri, B., & Ruenwongsa, P. (2010). Effects of a virtual sign animated pedagogical agent on ICT learning. International Journal of Learning, 17(3), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.18848/1447-9494/CGP/v17i03/46931

  • Schneider, S., Beege, M., Nebel, S., Schnaubert, L., & Rey, G. D. (2022a). The Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments (CASTLE). Educational Psychology Review, 34(1), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09626-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Schneider, S., Krieglstein, F., Beege, M., & Rey, G. D. (2022b). The impact of video lecturers’ nonverbal communication on learning – An experiment on gestures and facial expressions of pedagogical agents. Computers & Education, 176, 104350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104350

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Schroeder, N. L., & Adesope, O. O. (2013). How does a contextually-relevant peer pedagogical agent in a learner-attenuated system-paced learning environment affect cognitive and affective outcomes? Journal of Teaching and Learning with Technology, 2(2), 114–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, N. L., Adesope, O. O., & Gilbert, R. B. (2013). How effective are pedagogical agents for learning? A meta-analytic review. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 49(1), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.49.1.a

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Schutt, M., Allen, B. S., & Laumakis, M. A. (2009). The effects of instructor immediacy behaviors in online learning environments. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10(2), 135–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwan, S., & Riempp, R. (2004). The cognitive benefits of interactive videos: Learning to tie nautical knots. Learning & Instruction, 14(3), 293–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.06.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Straube, B., Green, A., Weis, S., Chatterjee, A., & Kircher, T. (2009). Memory effects of speech and gesture binding: Cortical and hippocampal activation in relation to subsequent memory performance. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(4), 821–836. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21053

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stull, A. T., Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2018). An eye-tracking analysis of instructor presence in video lectures. Computers in Human Behavior, 88, 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.07.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Sueyoshi, A., & Hardison, D. M. (2005). The role of gestures and facial cues in second language listening comprehension. Language Learning, 55(4), 661–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0023-8333.2005.00320.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Sweller, N., Shinooka-Phelan, A., & Austin, E. (2020). The effects of observing and producing gestures on Japanese word learning. Acta Psychologica, 207, 103079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103079

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Tellier, M. (2008). The effect of gestures on second language memorisation by young children. Gesture, 8(2), 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1075/gest.8.2.06tel

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tjew, & Hwa, S. P. (2022). The impact of animated and static pedagogical agents on students' learning achievement in an introductory psychology course. A Journal of Science & Technology, 5(1), 54-64

  • Twyford, J., & Craig, S. (2013).Virtual humans and gesturing during multimedia learning: An investigation of predictions from the temporal contiguity effect. Paper presented at the meetingof the World conference on e-learning in corporate, government, healthcare, and higher education, Chesapeake, VA.

  • *Valenzeno, L., Alibali, M. W., & Klatzky, R. (2003). Teachers’ gestures facilitate students’ learning: A lesson in symmetry. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0361-476x(02)00007-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Gog, T. (2022). The signaling (or cueing) principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer & L. Fiorella (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 221–230): Cambridge University Press.

  • *van Wermeskerken, M., Fijan, N., Eielts, C., & Pouw, W. T. J. L. (2016). Observation of depictive versus tracing gestures selectively aids verbal versus visual–spatial learning in primary school children. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(5), 806–814. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *van Wermeskerken, M., Ravensbergen, S., & van Gog, T. (2017). Effects of instructor presence in video modeling examples on attention and learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 430–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.038

  • Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03

  • Viechtbauer, W., & Cheung, M.W.-L. (2010). Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Wakefield, E., Novack, M. A., Congdon, E. L., Franconeri, S., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2018). Gesture helps learners learn, but not merely by guiding their visual attention. Developmental Science, 21(6), e12664. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12664

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Wang, F., Li, W., Mayer, R. E., & Liu, H. (2018). Animated pedagogical agents as aids in multimedia learning: Effects on eye-fixations during learning and learning outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(2), 250–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, F., Li, W., & Zhao, T. (2022). Multimedia learning with animated pedagogical agents. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (3rd ed., pp. 452–462). Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Wang, J., & Antonenko, P. (2017). Instructor presence in instructional video: Effects on visual attention, recall, and perceived learning. Computer in Human Behavior, 71, 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.049

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Wang, J., Antonenko, P., Keil, A., & Dawson, K. (2020). Converging subjective and psychophysiological measures of cognitive load to study the effects of instructor-present video. Mind, Brain, and Education, 14(3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, L., Wang, J., Wang, J., & Lu, Y. (2012). A comparative event-related potential study on recognition of cartoon face and real face. Psychological Research, 5(5), 19–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wei, J., Zhang, W., Feng, L., & Gao, W. (2017). Comparison of fertility-sparing treatments in patients with early endometrial cancer and atypical complex hyperplasia: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Medicine, 96(37), e8034. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000008034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, K. E., Martinez, M., Mills, C., D’Mello, S., Smilek, D., & Risko, E. F. (2018). Instructor presence effect: Liking does not always lead to learning. Computers & Education, 122, 205–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.03.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yılmaz, R., & Kılıç-Çakmak, E. (2012). Educational interface agents as social models to influence learner achievement, attitude and retention of learning. Computers & Education, 59(2), 828–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.03.020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Yung, H. I., & Paas, F. (2015). Effects of cueing by a pedagogical agent in an instructional animation: A cognitive load approach. Educational Technology & Society, 18(3), 153–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Yang, J., Zhu, F., Jiang, Y., & Pi, Z. (2023). Do adults and children learn differently from video lectures with an instructor’s deictic gestures? Education and Information Technologies, 28(7), 8377–8400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11523-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Zeitlhofer, I., Zumbach, J., & Aigner, V. (2023). Effects of pedagogical agents on learners’ knowledge acquisition and motivation in digital learning environments. Knowledge, 3(1), 53–67. https://doi.org/10.3390/knowledge3010004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, J., Meng, Q., An, L., & Wang, Y. (2019). An event-related potential comparison of facial expression processing between cartoon and real faces. PLoS ONE, 14(1), e019886. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198868

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We express our appreciation to He** **e for his assistance in data analysis and Yihong Li for participating in the coding work.

Funding

This research was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant numbers 32000766, 62277025].

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Psychology, Tian** Normal University, Tian**, China

    Wen**g Li

  2. School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China

    Ziyi Kuang, **aoxue Leng & Fuxing Wang

  3. Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA

    Richard E. Mayer

Authors
  1. Wen**g Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ziyi Kuang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. **aoxue Leng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Richard E. Mayer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Fuxing Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Wen**g Li or Fuxing Wang.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 1576 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Li, W., Kuang, Z., Leng, X. et al. Role of Gesturing Onscreen Instructors in Video Lectures: A Set of Three-level Meta-analyses on the Embodiment Effect. Educ Psychol Rev 36, 67 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09910-0

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09910-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation