Abstract
The increasing popularity of online commerce provides a new opportunity to investigate and quantify the dynamics of pet trade. Understanding these dynamics, including relationships between species characteristics and a species’ relative abundance in trade, can assist in informing trade regulation for conservation and biosecurity. We identified the leading correlates behind the abundance in the Australian pet trade of parrot (Psittaciformes) and passerine (Passeriformes) species. We examined 14,000 online sales of parrots and passerines collected from a popular online Australian marketplace in 2019 (representing 235 species) using an automated data collection method. We identified the characteristics that correlated with online species abundance; including (i) breeding and handling requirements; (ii) trade and availability; and (iii) appearance and behaviour. We found 55% of parrot species and 64% of passerine species traded online were non-native to Australia; of these, 81% and 85% respectively have an extreme risk of establishing invasive populations. Species abundance of both orders was correlated with cheaper prices, which is also associated with a higher invasion risk. Trade in parrots was correlated with attractive birdsongs, being easier to care for, and a preference for native Australian species. Passerine abundance was correlated with attractive plumage colour and, to a lesser extent, the availability of colour mutations and smaller geographic range sizes. These results, combined with an understanding of consumer behaviour and international trends, may help predict which species will become abundant in domestic trade in the future, and identify current and future invasion risks to assist in environmental biosecurity efforts.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files, and datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available in the Figshare repository; https://doi.org/10.25909/24117159.
References
Alacs E, Georges A (2008) Wildlife across our borders: a review of the illegal trade in Australia. Aust J Forensic Sci 40:147–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/00450610802491382
Andersson AA, Tilley HB, Lau W, Dudgeon D, Bonebrake TC, Dingle C (2021) CITES and beyond: illuminating 20 years of global, legal wildlife trade. Global Ecol Conserv 26:e01455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01455
Australian Intergovernmental Environment & Invasives Committee (2018) Australian list of threat categories of non-indigenous vertebrates
Bartoń K (2022) MuMIn: Multi-Model Inference. R package version 1.47.1. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=MuMIn
BirdLife A (2019) The BirdLife working list of Australian birds; Version 3
BirdLife International and Handbook of the Birds of the World (2019) Bird species distribution maps of the world. 2019.1 ed
Blackburn TM, Duncan RP (2001) Establishment patterns of exotic birds are constrained by non-random patterns in introduction. J Biogeogr 28:927–939
Blackburn TM, Su S, Cassey P, Hauber M (2014) A potential metric of the attractiveness of bird song to humans. Ethology 120:305–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12211
Brooks MEK, van Benthem K, Magnusson KJ, Berg A, Nielsen CW, Skaug A, Machler HJ, Bolker M (2017) glmmTMB: balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. R J 9:378–400. https://doi.org/10.32614/RJ-2017-066
Carballo L, Delhey K, Valcu M, Kempenaers B (2020) Body size and climate as predictors of plumage colouration and sexual dichromatism in parrots. J Evol Biol 33:1543–1557. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.13690
Cassey P, Delean S, Lockwood JL, Sadowski JS, Blackburn TM (2018) Dissecting the null model for biological invasions: a meta-analysis of the propagule pressure effect. PLoS Biol 16:e2005987. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2005987
Chan DTC, Poon ESK, Wong ATC, Sin SYW (2021) Global trade in parrots—influential factors of trade and implications for conservation. Global Ecol Conserv 30:e01784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01784
Chapman T (2005) The status and impact of the Rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus moluccanus) in south-west Western Australia. Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Western Australia, Perth. Report 04/2005
Clements JF, Schulenberg TS, Iliff MJ, Fredericks TA, Gerbracht JA, Lepage D, Billerman SM, Sullivan BL, Wood CL (2022) The eBird/Clements checklist of Birds of the World: v2022
Dale J, Dey CJ, Delhey K, Kempenaers B, Valcu M (2015) The effects of life history and sexual selection on male and female plumage colouration. Nature 527:367–370. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15509
Daoud JI (2017) Multicollinearity and regression analysis. J Phys Conf Ser 949(1):012009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/949/1/012009
Dormann CF, Calabrese JM, Guillera-Arroita G, Matechou E, Bahn V, Bartoń K, Beale CM, Ciuti S, Elith J, Gerstner K, Guelat J, Keil P, Lahoz-Monfort JJ, Pollock LJ, Reineking B, Roberts DR, Schröder B, Thuiller W, Warton DI, Wintle BA, Wood SN, Wüest RO, Hartig F (2018) Model averaging in ecology: a review of bayesian, information-theoretic, and tactical approaches for predictive inference. Ecol Monogr 88:485–504. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1309
Garnett ST, Ainsworth GB, Zander KK (2018) Are we choosing the right flagships? The bird species and characteristics australians find most attractive. PLoS ONE 13:e0199253. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199253
Gippet JMW, Bertelsmeier C (2021) Invasiveness is linked to greater commercial success in the global pet trade. Proc Natl Acad Sci 118:e2016337118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2016337118
Harris JBC, Tingley MW, Hua F, Yong DL, Adeney JM, Lee TM, Marthy W, Prawiradilaga DM, Sekercioglu CH, Suyadi, Winarni N, Wilcove DS (2017) Measuring the impact of the pet trade on Indonesian birds. Conserv Biol 31:394–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12729
Jain A, Aloysius SLM, Lim H, Plowden T, Yong DL, Lee JG, Phelps J (2022) Understanding Singapore’s dynamic parrot trade ecosystem. Oryx 56:184. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605320001246
Jerison HJ (1955) Brain to body ratios and the evolution of intelligence. Science 121:447–449. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.121.3144.447
Jetz W, Thomas GH, Joy JB, Hartmann K, Mooers AO (2012) The global diversity of birds in space and time. Nature 491:444. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11631
Krishna VV, Darras K, Grass I, Mulyani YA, Prawiradilaga DM, Tscharntke T, Qaim M (2019) Wildlife trade and consumer preference for species rarity: an examination of caged-bird markets in Sumatra. Environ Dev Econ 24:339–360. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X19000081
Lockwood JL, Welbourne DJ, Romagosa CM, Cassey P, Mandrak NE, Strecker A, Leung B, Stringham OC, Udell B, Episcopio-Sturgeon DJ, Tlusty MF, Sinclair J, Springborn MR, Pienaar EF, Rhyne AL, Keller R (2019) When pets become pests: the role of the exotic pet trade in producing invasive vertebrate animals. Front Ecol Environ 17:323–330. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2059
Lüdecke D, Ben-Shachar M, Patil I, Waggoner P, Makowski D (2021) Performance: an R package for assessment, comparison and testing of statistical models. J Open Source Softw 6:3139. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.03139
Marshall H, Collar NJ, Lees AC, Moss A, Yuda P, Marsden SJ (2020) Characterizing bird-kee** user-groups on Java reveals distinct behaviours, profiles and potential for change. People Nat 2:877–888. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10132
Moloney GK, Tuke J, Dal Grande E, Nielsen T, Chaber AL (2021) Is YouTube promoting the exotic pet trade? Analysis of the global public perception of popular YouTube videos featuring threatened exotic animals. PLoS ONE 16:e0235451. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235451
Moorhouse TP, Balaskas M, D’Cruze NC, Macdonald DW (2017) Information could reduce consumer demand for exotic pets. Conserv Lett 10:337–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12270
Myhrvold NP, Baldridge E, Chan B, Sivam D, Freeman DL, Ernest SKM (2015) An amniote life-history database to perform comparative analyses with birds, mammals, and reptiles. Ecology 96:3109–3109. https://doi.org/10.1890/15-0846r.1
Nakagawa S, Johnson PCD, Schielzeth H (2017) The coefficient of determination R2 and intra-class correlation coefficient from generalized linear mixed-effects models revisited and expanded. J R Soc Interface 14:20170213. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2017.0213
Nijman V, Ardiansyah A, Siriwat P, Birot H, Winnasis S, Damianou E, Imron MA, Langgeng A, Lewis B, Nekaris KAI (2022) Wildlife trade and the establishment of invasive alien species in Indonesia: management, policy, and regulation of the commercial sale of passerines. Biol Invasions 24:2905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-022-02831-5
R Core Team (2022) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria
Revell LJ (2012) Phytools: an R package for phylogenetic comparative biology (and other things). Methods Ecol Evol 3:217–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-210X.2011.00169.x
Roberts DR, Bahn V, Ciuti S, Boyce MS, Elith J, Guillera-Arroita G, Hauenstein S, Lahoz-Monfort JJ, Schröder B, Thuiller W, Warton DI, Wintle BA, Hartig F, Dormann CF (2017) Cross-validation strategies for data with temporal, spatial, hierarchical, or phylogenetic structure. Ecography 40:913–929. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.02881
Robinson SA, Baker GB, Barclay C (2020) Controlling the rainbow lorikeet in Tasmania: is it too late? EMU Austral Ornithol 120:286–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/01584197.2020.1852574
Romero-Vidal P, Hiraldo F, Rosseto F, Blanco G, Carrete M, Tella JL (2020) Opportunistic or non-random wildlife crime? Attractiveness rather than abundance in the wild leads to selective parrot poaching. Diversity 12:314. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12080314
Rubolini D, Liker A, Garamszegi LZ, Moller AP, Saino N (2015) Using the BirdTree.org website to obtain robust phylogenies for avian comparative studies: a primer. Curr Zool 61:959–965. https://doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/61.6.959
Seebens H, Blackburn TM, Dyer EE, Genovesi P, Hulme PE, Jeschke JM, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A, Moser D, Nishino M, Pearman D, Pergl J, Rabitsch W, Rojas-Sandoval J, Roques A, Rorke S, Rossinelli S, Roy HE, Scalera R, Schindler S, Štajerová K, Tokarska-Guzik B, van Kleunen M, Walker K, Weigelt P, Yamanaka T, Essl F (2017) No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nat Commun 8:14435. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14435
Senior RA, Oliveira BF, Dale J, Scheffers BR (2022) Wildlife trade targets colorful birds and threatens the aesthetic value of nature. Curr Biol 32:4299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.066
Siriwat P, Nijman V (2020) Wildlife trade shifts from brick-and-mortar markets to virtual marketplaces: a case study of birds of prey trade in Thailand. J Asia Pac Biodivers 13:454–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2020.03.012
Siriwat P, Nekaris KAI, Nijman V (2020) Digital media and the modern-day pet trade: a test of the Harry Potter effect and the owl trade in Thailand. Endanger Species Res 41:7–16. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr01006
Stanley MC, McNaughton EJ, Fewster RM, Galbraith JA (2023) Cumulative propagule pressure exerted by escaped pet parrots. J Appl Ecol 60:384–392. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14341
Stringham OC, García-Díaz P, Toomes A, Mitchell L, Ross J, Cassey P (2021a) Reptile Smuggling is predicted by trends in the legal exotic pet trade. Conserv Lett 14:e12833. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12833
Stringham OC, Toomes A, Kanishka AM, Mitchell L, Heinrich S, Ross JV, Cassey P (2021b) A guide to using the internet to monitor and quantify the wildlife trade. Conserv Biol 35:1130–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13675
Stringham OC, Moncayo S, Hill KGW, Toomes A, Mitchell L, Ross JV, Cassey P (2021c) Text classification to streamline online wildlife trade analyses. PLoS ONE 16:e0254007. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254007
Su S, Vall-Llosera M, Cassey P, Blackburn TM, Carrete M, Tella JL (2022) Drivers of alien species composition in bird markets across the world. Ecol Evol 12:e8397. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.8397
Tella JL, Hiraldo F (2014) Illegal and legal parrot trade shows a long-term, cross-cultural preference for the most attractive species increasing their risk of extinction. PLoS ONE 9:e107546. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107546
Thompson RM, Hall J, Morrison C, Palmer NR, Roberts DL (2021) Ethics and governance for internet-based conservation science research. Conserv Biol 35:1747. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13778
Toomes A, García-Díaz P, Wittmann TA, Virtue J, Cassey J (2019) New aliens in Australia: 18 years of vertebrate interceptions. Wildl Res 47:55–67. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR18185
Toomes A, Stringham OC, Mitchell L, Ross JV, Cassey P (2020) Australia’s wish list of exotic pets: Biosecurity and conservation implications of desired alien and illegal pet species. NeoBiota 60:43–59. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.60.51431
Toomes A, García-Díaz P, Stringham OC, Ross JV, Mitchell L, Cassey P (2022) Drivers of the Australian native pet trade: the role of species characteristics, socioeconomic attributes and regulatory systems. J Appl Ecol 59:1268–1278. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14138
Toomes A, Moncayo S, Stringham OC, Lassaline C, Wood L, Millington M, Drake C, Jense C, Allen A, Hill KGW, García-Díaz P, Mitchell L, Cassey P (2023) A snapshot of online wildlife trade: Australian e-commerce trade of native and non-native pets. Biol Conserv 282:110040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110040
Vall-llosera M, Cassey P (2017a) Do you come from a land down under?’ Characteristics of the international trade in Australian endemic parrots. Biol Conserv 207:38–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.01.015
Vall-llosera M, Cassey P (2017b) Leaky doors: private captivity as a prominent source of bird introductions in Australia. PLoS ONE 12:e0172851. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172851
Vall-llosera M, Cassey P (2017c) Physical attractiveness, constraints to the trade and handling requirements drive the variation in species availability in the Australian cagebird trade. Ecol Econ 131:407–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.07.015
Vall-llosera M, Sol D (2009) A global risk assessment for the success of bird introductions. J Appl Ecol 46:787–795. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01674.x
Vall-llosera M, Woolnough AP, Anderson D, Cassey P (2016) Improved surveillance for early detection of a potential invasive species: the alien rose-ringed parakeet Psittacula krameri in Australia. Biol Invasions 19:1273–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-016-1332-x
van der Tsuboi M, Kopperud BT, Erritzoe J, Voje KL, Kotrschal A, Yopak KE, Collin SP, Iwaniuk AN, Kolm N (2018) Breakdown of brain-body allometry and the encephalization of birds and mammals. Nat Ecol Evol 2:1492–1500. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0632-1
Woolnough AP, de Milliano JW, van Polanen Petel T, Cassey P (2020) Policy approach to non-indigenous bird management in Victoria: managing potential threats to biodiversity, social amenity and economic values. Vic Naturalist the 137:203–209. https://doi.org/10.3316/informit.734642175957842
Yates LA, Aandahl Z, Richards SA, Brook BW (2023) Cross validation for model selection: a review with examples from ecology. Ecol Monogr 93:e1557
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Kaurna Meyunna of the Adelaide Hills and Plains, the Indigenous Traditional Owners of the land on which this research was conducted. This project was partly funded by the Centre for Invasive Species Solutions Project ‘Understanding and intervening in illegal trade in non-native species’ (P01-I-002) and Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarships to KGWH and AT. PC is an Australian Research Council Industry Laureate Fellow (IL230100175; ‘Combatting wildlife crime and preventing environmental harm’).
Funding
This project was partly funded by the Centre for Invasive Species Solutions Project ‘Understanding and intervening in illegal trade in non-native species’ (P01-I-002) and Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarships to KGWH and AT. AT was further supported by the FJ Sandoz Scholarship. PC is an Australian Research Council Industry Laureate Fellow (IL230100175; ‘Combatting wildlife crime and preventing environmental harm’).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The project was conceptualised by KGWH, OSC and PC, and supervised by OSC, JJT and PC. Data collection methodology was developed by OSC, and data curation by KGWH, OSC, SM and AT. Data analysis methodology was developed by SD, and performed by KGWH, SD and OSC. The first draft of the manuscript was written by KGWH and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Hill, K.G.W., Stringham, O.C., Moncayo, S. et al. Who’s a pretty bird? Predicting the traded abundance of bird species in Australian online pet trade. Biol Invasions 26, 975–988 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-023-03221-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-023-03221-1