Abstract
d-Aspartate, d-serine and d-alanine are a regular occurrence in mammalian endocrine tissues, though in amounts varying with the type of gland. The pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid, adrenal glands and testis contain relatively large amounts of d-aspartate in all species examined. d-alanine is relatively abundant in the pituitary gland and pancreas. High levels of d-serine characterize the hypothalamus. d-leucine, d-proline and d-glutamate are generally low. The current knowledge of physiological roles of d-amino acids in endocrine tissues is far from exhaustive, yet the topic is attracting increasing interest because of its potential in pharmacological application. d-aspartate is known to act at all levels of the hypothalamus–pituitary–testis axis, playing a key role in reproductive biology in several vertebrate classes. An involvement of d-amino acids in the endocrine function of the pancreas is emerging. d-Aspartate has been immunolocalized in insulin-containing secretory granules in INS-1 E clonal β cells and is co-secreted with insulin by exocytosis. Specific immunolocalization of d-alanine in pituitary ACTH-secreting cells and pancreatic β-cells suggests that this amino acid participates in blood glucose regulation in mammals. By modulating insulin secretion, d-serine probably participates in the control of systemic glucose metabolism by modulating insulin secretion. We anticipate that future investigation will significantly increase the functional repertoire of d-amino acids in homeostatic control.
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Abbreviations
- α-MSH:
-
α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
- ACTH:
-
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- AMPAR:
-
α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor
- ATPase:
-
Adenosine triphosphatase
- Ca2+ :
-
Calcium
- d-Ala:
-
d-Alanine
- d-Asp:
-
d-Aspartate
- d-Glu:
-
d-Glutamate
- d-Leu:
-
d-Leucine
- d-Pro:
-
d-Proline
- d-Ser:
-
d-Serine
- d-Allo-Thr:
-
d-Allo-threonine
- d-Thr:
-
d-threonine
- DAAM1:
-
Disheveled-associated-activator of morphogenesis1
- DAO:
-
d-Amino acid oxidase
- DDO:
-
d-Aspartate oxidase
- ERK:
-
Extracellular signal-regulated kinases
- GABA:
-
γ-Aminobutyric acid
- GH:
-
Growth hormone
- GluR:
-
Glutamate receptor
- GnRH:
-
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
- NMDA:
-
N-Methyl-d-aspartate
- NMDAR:
-
N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptor
- l-Asp:
-
l-Aspartate
- LEA/Sen:
-
Long–Evans Agouti/SENDAI
- LH:
-
Luteinizing hormone
- LHRH:
-
Luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone
- NOS:
-
Nitric oxide synthase
- POMC:
-
Pro-opiomelanocortin
- PREP:
-
Prolyl endopeptidase
- PRL:
-
Prolactin
- SD:
-
Sprague Dawley
- SRR:
-
Serine racemase
- Srr-KO:
-
Serine racemase knock out
- T2D:
-
Type-2 diabetes
- T3:
-
Triiodothyronine
- T4:
-
Tiroxine
- TSH:
-
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
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This research was supported by University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli” (VALERE Project 2019; CUP: B68D19001880005).
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Chieffi Baccari, G., Falvo, S., Santillo, A. et al. d-Amino acids in mammalian endocrine tissues. Amino Acids 52, 1263–1273 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-020-02892-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-020-02892-7