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Biomarkers for Alzheimer’s Disease

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Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease, which affects intellectually is frequently observed in elderly generations and genetically linked individuals. The diagnosis of this disease is characterized by the presence of biomarkers such as amyloid beta (Aβ1–42), phosphorylated tau (P-tau), and total tau (t-tau) protein causing NFTs’ intercellularly interrupting synapse, which aids in transmitting the neuronal signals, thereby leading to memory loss and cognitive impairment failing to do basic tasks in daily life. Acquiring the diagnosis of this disease through the presence of biomarkers is categorized into two ways, invasive and noninvasive. The invasive way includes the collection of cerebrospinal fluid which is considered painful, but the advantage of this method is that it verifies the presence of the biomarkers accurately by taking into account its close association with the brain. This method is usually done at late stages for confirmation. The less painful or noninvasive ways include collecting samples from blood and ocular, olfactory, and oral fluids. These methods are in the preliminary stages of research that need further investigation to overcome methodological heterogeneity and discrepancy in accuracy and specificity.

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Abbreviations

15-LOX:

15-Lipoxygenase

AChE:

Acetylcholine esterase

AD:

Alzheimer’s disease

ADNI:

Alzheimer’s disease neuroimaging initiative

AMPK:

5′ Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase

Apoε4:

Apolipoprotein-E

APP:

Amyloid precursor protein

Aβ:

Beta-amyloid

BBB:

Blood-brain barrier

BCSFB:

Blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier

CAA:

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy

cdk5:

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5

CDR:

Clinical dementia rating

CHGA:

Chromogranin A

CK 1:

Casein kinase 1

CNS:

Central nervous system

CSF:

Cerebrospinal fluid

CSF-ISF exchange:

Cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid exchange

CT:

Computerized tomography

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid

DS:

Down syndrome

DYRK-1A:

Dual-specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A

ELISA:

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

FDG:

Fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose

FMRI:

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

GSK-3:

Glycogen synthase kinase-3

IL:

Interleukin

IP-10:

Interferon-induced protein 10

LC:

Locus coeruleus

LM:

Logical memory

LRP-1:

Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein

Lys C:

Lysozyme C

MALDI-MS:

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectroscopy

MARKS:

Microtubule affinity-regulating kinases

MCI:

Mild cognitive impairment

MCP-1:

Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1

miRNA:

Microsomal RNA

MMSE:

Mini-mental state examination

MRI:

Magnetic resonance imaging

MS:

Mass spectroscopy

Multiplex iTRAQ:

Multiplexed isobaric tagging technology for relative quantitation

NCANP:

Neurocan core protein

NFTs:

Neurofibrillary tangles

NGF:

Nerve growth factor

NMDA:

N-methyl-D-aspartate

NPTX1:

Neuronal pentraxin 1

NRXNs:

Neurexins

NTP:

Neuronal thread protein

OCT:

Optical coherence tomography

PET:

Positron-emission tomography

PGP-D:

D-glycol protein

PiB:

Pittsburgh compound B

PKA:

Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A

PP1:

Protein phosphate-1

PP2A:

Protein phosphate-2A

PP5:

Protein phosphate-5

PS 2:

Presenilin

P-tau:

Phosphorylated tau

RNA:

Ribonucleic acid

RNFL:

Retinal nerve fiber layer

RT-PCR:

Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction

SCG2:

Secretogranin 2

SELDI:

Surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy

SYN-2:

Synaptic protein synapsin-2

t-tau:

Total tau

VILIP-1:

Visinin-like protein 1

WMS:

Wechsler memory scale

β2M:

β2-Macroglobulin

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Raebareli, Lucknow, India

    Mareechika Gaddam, Esther Rani Motamarri & Abha Sharma

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  1. Mareechika Gaddam
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  2. Esther Rani Motamarri
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  3. Abha Sharma
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Correspondence to Abha Sharma .

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  1. Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Abha Sharma

  2. Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Gyan Prakash Modi

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Gaddam, M., Motamarri, E.R., Sharma, A. (2023). Biomarkers for Alzheimer’s Disease. In: Sharma, A., Modi, G.P. (eds) Natural Product-based Synthetic Drug Molecules in Alzheimer's Disease. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6038-5_4

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6038-5_4

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