Abstract
The fresh developments in the area of terahertz (THz) devices and systems based on gallium nitride (GaN) have lifted the requirement of the state-of-the-art noncontact characterization techniques. In this chapter, three major noncontact characterization techniques used for characterizing GaN-based THz devices have been described in details; those are (i) THz time-domain spectroscopy, (ii) laser-induced THz emission spectroscopy, and (iii) THz electromodulation spectroscopy. These noncontact characterization techniques have been established as potential alternatives of conventional contact measurement techniques due to their accuracy, reliability, and capability of providing noteworthy amount of visually interpretable information.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
P.H. Siegel, Terahertz technology. IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech. 50(3), 910–928 (2002)
P. Martyniuk, J. Antoszewski, M. Martyniuk, L. Faraone, A. Rogalski, New concepts in infrared photodeector designs. Appl. Phys. Rev. 1, 041102-1–041102-35 (2014)
R.M. Woodward, B.E. Cole, V.P. Wallace, R.J. Pye, D.D. Arnone, E.H. Linfield, M. Pepper, Terahertz pulse imaging in reflection geometry of human skin cancer and skin tissue. Phys. Med. Biol. 47, 3853–3863 (2002)
M. Nagel, P.H. Bolivar, M. Brucherseifer, H. Kurz, A. Bosserhoff, R. Buttner, Integrated THz technology for label-free genetic diagnostics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 80(1), 154–156 (2002)
N. Karpowicz, H. Zhong, C. Zhang, K.I Lin, J.S. Hwang, J. Xu, X.C. Zhang, Compact continuous-wave subterahertz system for inspection applications. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86(5), 054105-1–054105-3 (2005)
K. Yamamoto, M. Yamaguchi, F. Miyamaru, M. Tani, M. Hangyo, Non-invasive inspection of c-4 explosive in mails by terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. J. Appl. Phys. 43(3B), L414–L417 (2004)
K. Kawase, Y. Ogawa, Y. Watanabe, H. Inoue, Non-destructive terahertz imaging of illicit drugs using spectral fingerprints. Opt. Express 11(20), 2054–2549 (2003)
C. Joerdens, M. Koch, Detection of foreign bodies in chocolate with pulsed terahertz spectroscopy. Opt. Eng. 47(3), 037003-1–037003-5 (2008)
M. Tonouchi, Cutting-edge terahertz technology. Nat. Photonics 1, 97–105 (2007)
K. Ahi, Review of GaN-based devices for terahertz operation. Opt. Eng. 56(9), 090901 (2017)
J. Faist et al., Quantum cascade laser. Science 264, 553–556 (1994)
R. Köhler et al., Terahertz semiconductor-heterostructure laser. Nature 417, 156–159 (2002)
B.S.Williams et al., Operation of terahertz quantum-cascade lasers at 164 K in pulsed mode and at 117 K in continuous-wave mode. Opt. Express 13(9), 3331–3339 (2005)
E. Bellotti et al., Monte Carlo simulation of terahertz quantum cascade laser structures based on wide-bandgap semiconductors. J. Appl. Phys. 105, 113103-1–113103-9 (2009)
E. Bellotti et al., Monte Carlo study of GaN versus GaAs terahertz quantum cascade structures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 1011121–1011123 (2008)
F. Sudradjat et al., Sequential tunneling transport characteristics of GaN/AlGaN coupled-quantum-well structures. J. Appl. Phys. 108, 103704–1–5 (2010)
D. Turchinovich et al., Ultrafast polarization dynamics in biased quantum wells under strong femtosecond optical excitation. Phys. Rev. B 68, 241307-1–241307-8 (2003)
D. Turchinovich, B.S. Monozon, P.U. Jepsen, Role of dynamical screening in excitation kinetics of biased quantum wells: nonlinear absorption and ultrabroadband terahertz emission. J. Appl. Phys. 99, 013510-1–013510-8 (2006)
S. Miho, T.-T. Lin, H. Hirayama, 1.9 THz selective injection design quantum cascade laser operating at extreme higher temperature above the kBT line. Phys. Status Solidi (c) 10, 1448–1451 (2013)
T.-T. Lin, H. Hirayama, Improvement of operation temperature in GaAs/AlGaAs THz-QCLs by utilizing high Al composition barrier. Phys. Status Solidi C 10(11), 1430–1433 (2013)
T.-T. Lin, L. Ying, H. Hirayama, Threshold current density reduction by utilizing high-al-composition barriers in 3.7 THz GaAs∕AlxGa1−xAs quantum cascade lasers. Appl. Phys. Express 5, 012101 (2012)
W. Terashima, H. Hirayama, GaN-based terahertz quantum cascade lasers. Proc. SPIE 9483, 948304 (2015)
H. Hirayama et al., Recent progress and future prospects of THz quantum-cascade lasers. Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 9382, 938217-1–93821711 (2015)
J. D. Sun et al., High-responsivity, low-noise, room-temperature, self-mixing terahertz detector realized using floating antennas on a GaN-based field-effect transistor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 013506-1–0135063 (2012)
R. A. Lewis et al., Probing and modelling the localized self-mixing in a GaN/AlGaN field-effect terahertz detector. Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 173513-1–173513-3 (2012)
M. Bauer et al., High-sensitivity wideband THz detectors based on GaN HEMTs with integrated Bow-Tie antennas, in Proceedings of the 10th European Microwave Integrated Circuits Conference, 7–8 Sept 2015 (Paris, France, 2015), pp. 1–4
H. Hou et al., Modelling of GaN HEMTs as terahertz detectors based on self-mixing. Proc. Eng. 141, 98–102 (2016)
A. Kikuchi, R. Bannai, K. Kichino, C.-M. Lee, J.-I. Chyi, AlN/GaN double-barrier resonant tunneling diodes grown by rf-plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1729–1731 (2002)
A. E. Belyaev, C. T. Foxon, S. V. Novikov, O. Makarovsky, L. Eaves, M. J. Kappers, C. J. Humphreys, Comment on AlN/GaN double-barrier resonant tunneling diodes grown by rf-plasmaassisted molecular-beam epitaxy [Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1729 (2002)]. Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 3626–3627 (2003)
A. Kikuchi, R. Bannai, K. Kichino, C. M. Lee, J.-I. Chyi, Response to comment on AlNÕGaN double-barrier resonant tunneling diodes grown by rf-plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy †Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 3626, 2003]83, 3628 (2003)
C.T. Foxon, S.V. Novikov, A.E. Belyaev, L.X. Zhao, O. Makarovsky, D.J. Walker, L. Eaves, R.I. Dykeman, S.V. Danylyuk, S.A. Vitusevich, M.J. Kappers, J.S. Barnard, C.J. Humphreys, Current–voltage instabilities in GaN/AlGaN resonant tunnelling structures. Phys. Status Solidi (c) 7, 2389–2392 (2003)
S. Golka, C. Pflugl, W. Schrenk, G. Strasser, C. Skierbiszewski, M. Siekacz, I. Grzegory, S. Porowski, Negative differential resistance in dislocation-free GaN/AlGaN doublebarrier diodes grown on bulk GaN. Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 172106-1–172106-3 (2006)
C. Bayram, Z. Vashaei, M. Razeghi, AlN/GaN double-barrier resonant tunneling diodes grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 042103–1–3 (2010)
P. Klein, J. Mittereder, S. Binari, J. Roussos, D. Katzer, D. Storm, Photoionisation spectroscopy of traps in AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Electron. Lett. 39(18), 1256–1354 (2003)
J.W.P. Hsu, M.J. Manfra, R.J. Molnar, B. Heying, J.S. Speck, Direct imaging of reverse-bias leakage through pure screw dislocations in GaN films grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaN templates. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81(1), 79–81 (2002)
S. Syed, M.J. Manfra, Y.J. Wang, R.J. Molnar, H.L. Stormer, Electron scattering in AlGaN/GaN structures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 84(9), 1507–1509 (2004)
L. Rigutti, G. Jacopin, A. De Luna Bugallo, M. Tchernycheva, E. Warde,F. H. Julien, R. Songmuang, E. Galopin, L. Largeau, J.-C. Harmand,Investigation of the electronic transport in GaN nanowires containing GaN/AlN quantum discs. Nanotechnology 21(42), 425206 (2010)
R. Songmuang, G. Katsaros, E. Monroy, P. Spathis, C. Bougeral, M. Mongillo, S. De Franceschi, Quantum transport in GaN/AlN double-barrier heterostructure nanowires. Nano Lett. 10, 3545–3550 (2010)
F. Glas, Critical dimensions for the plastic relaxation of strained axial heterostructures in free-standing nanowires. Phys. Rev. B 74, 121302 (2006)
M.S. Shur, AlGaN/GaN plasmonic terahertz electronic devices. J. Phys. 486, 012025–1–6 (2014)
M.I. Dyakonov, M.S. Shur, Plasma wave electronics: novel terahertz devices using two dimensional electron fluid. IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices 43(10), 1640–1645 (1996)
J.-Q. Lu et al., Detection of microwave radiation by electronic fluid in AlGaN/GaN heterostructure field effect transistors, in Proceedings IEEE/ Cornell Conference on Advanced Concepts in High Speed Semiconductor Devices and Circuits, (1997), pp. 211–217
W. Knap et al., Nonresonant detection of terahertz radiation in field effect transistors. J. Appl. Phys. 91, 9346–9353 (2002)
A. El Fatimy et al., Terahertz detection by GaN/AlGaN transistors. Electron. Lett. 42, 1342–1344 (2006)
T. Otsuji, M. Shur, Terahertz plasmonics: good results and great expectations. IEEE Microwave Mag. 15, 43–50 (2014)
S. Krishnamurthy et al., Bandstructure effect on high-field transport in GaN and GaAlN. Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 1999–2001 (1997)
B.E. Foutz et al., Comparison of high field electron transport in GaN and GaAs. Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 2849–2851 (1997)
E. Alekseev, D. Pavlidis, GaN Gunn diodes for THz signal generation,” in IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest (Cat. No.00CH37017) vol. 3, (2000), pp. 1905–1908
E. Alekseev, D. Pavlidis, GaN Gunn diodes for THz signal generation. IEEE MTT-S Int. Microwave Symp. Digest 3, 1905–1908 (2000)
Y. Wang et al., Modulation of the domain mode in GaN-based planar Gunn diode for terahertz applications. Phys. Status Solidi (C) 13, 382–385 (2016)
S. Boppel et al., 0.25-μm GaN TeraFETs optimized as THz power detectors and intensity-gradient sensors. IEEE Trans. Terahertz Sci. Technol. 6, 348–350 (2016)
D. Veksler et al., GaN heterodimensional Schottky diode for THz detection, in The 5th IEEE Conference on Sensors (2006), pp. 323–326
S.M. Sze, K.K. Ng, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3rd edn. (Willy, India, 2010).
T.A. Midford, R.L. Bernick, Millimeter Wave CW IMPATT diodes and oscillators. IEEE Trans. Microwave Theo. Tech. 27, 483–492 (1979)
A. Acharyya, J.P. Banerjee, Prospects of IMPATT devices based on wide bandgap semiconductors as potential terahertz sources. Appl. Nanosci. 4, 1–14 (2014)
A. Acharyya, J.P. Banerjee, Potentiality of IMPATT devices as terahertz source: an avalanche response time based approach to determine the upper cut-off frequency limits. IETE J. Res. 59(2), 118–127 (2013)
S. Chakraborty, A. Acharyya, A. Biswas, A.K. Kundu, Multi-stage-multi-iterative optimization algorithm for design optimization of multi-quantum well terahertz avalanche transit time sources, in 2nd International Conference on VLSI Device, Circuit and System, 18th–19th July, (2020), Accepted
A. Biswas, S. Sinha, A. Acharyya, A. Banerjee, S. Pal, H. Satoh, H. Inokawa, 1.0 THz GaN IMPATT source: effect of parasitic series resistance. J. Infrared Millimeter Terahertz Waves39(10), 954–974 (2018).
J.T. Kindt, C.A. Schmuttenmaer, Far-infrared dielectric properties of polar liquids probed by femtosecond terahertz pulse spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. 100, 10373–10379 (1996)
B. Reinhard, K. M. Schmitt, V. Wollrab, J. Neu, R. Beigang, M. Rahm, Metamaterial near-field sensor for deep-subwavelength thickness measurements and sensitive refractometry in the terahertz frequency range. Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 221101-1–221101-3 (2012)
K.P. Cheung, D.H. Auston, Excitation of coherent phonon polaritons with femtosecond optical pulses. Phys. Rev. Lett. 55(20), 2152–2155 (1985)
K.P. Cheung, D.H. Auston, A novel technique for measuring far-infrared absorption and dispersion. Infrared Phys. 26, 23–27 (1986)
N. J. Halas, I. N. Duling III, M. B. Ketchen, D. Grischkowsky, Measured dispersion and absorption of a 5 micron coplanar transmission line, in Digest of Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (Optical Society of America, Washington, D.C., 1986)
M.C. Nuss, D.H. Auston, F. Capasso, Direct subpicosecond measurement of carrier mobility of photoexcited electrons in gallium arsenide. Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 2355–2358 (1987)
W.J. Gallagher, C.-C. Chi, I.N. Duling III., D. Grischkowsky, N.J. Halas, M.B. Ketchen, A.W. Kleinsasser, Subpicosecond optoelectronic study of resistive and superconductive transmission lines. Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 350–352 (1987)
R. Sprik, I.N. Duling III., C.-C. Chi, D. Grischkowsky, Far-infrared spectroscopy with subpicosecond electrical pulses on transmission lines. Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 548–550 (1987)
D. Grischkowsky, I.N. Duling III., J.C. Chen, C.-C. Chi, Electromagnetic shock waves from transmission lines. Phys. Rev. Lett. 59, 1663–1666 (1987)
D. Grischkowsky, C.-C. Chi, I.N. Duling III, W J. Gallagher, M.B. Ketchen, R. Sprik, Spectroscopy with ultrashort electrical pulses, in Laser Spectroscopy VIII, ed. by W. Persson, S. Svanberg (Springer, New York, 1987)
D. Grischkowsky, Time-domain far-infrared spectroscopy, in ed. by R. Kesselring, F.K. Kneubuhl. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Infrared Physics, ETH, Zurich, (1988)
Ch. Fattinger, D. Grischkowsky, Point source terahertz optics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 53, 1480–1482 (1988)
Y. Pastol, G. Arjavalingam, J.-M. Halbout, G.V. Kopcsay, Coherent broadband microwave spectroscopy using picoseconds optoelectronic antennas. Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 307–309 (1989)
Ch. Fattinger, D. Grischkowsky, Terahertz beams. Appl. Phys. Lett. 54, 490–492 (1989)
M. van Exter, C.H. Fattinger, D. Grischkowsky, Terahertz time-domain spectoscopy of water vapour. Opt. Lett. 14, 1128–1130 (1989)
Y. Pastol, G. Arjavalingam, G.V. Kopcsay, J.-M. Halbout, Dielectric properties of uniaxial crystals measured with optoelectronically generated microwave transient radiation. Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 2277–2279 (1989)
S. Keiding, D. Grischkowsky, Measurements of the phase shift and resha** of teraHz pulses due to total internal reflection. Opt. Lett. 15, 48–50 (1990)
M. van Exter and D. Grischkowsky, Optical and electronic properties of doped silicon from 0.1 to 2 THz. Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 1694–1696 (1990)
M. van Exter, D. Grischkowsky, Carrier dynamics of electrons and holes in moderately-doped silicon. Phys. Rev. B 41, 12140–12149 (1990)
D. Grischkowsky, S. Keiding, Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy of high T, substrates. Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 1055–1057 (1990)
M. Van Exter, D. Grischkowsky, Carrier dynamics of electron and holes in moderately doped silicon. Phys. Rev. B 41, 12140–12149 (1990)
D. Grischkowsky et al., Far-infrared time-domain spectroscopy with terahertz beams of dielectrics and semiconductors. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 7, 2006–2015 (1990)
N. Katzenellenbogen, D. Grischkowsky, Electrical characterization to 4 THz of N- and P-type GaAs using THz time-domain spectroscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 840–842 (1992)
Y. Bu et al., Optical properties of GaN epitaxial films grown by lowpressure chemical vapor epitaxy using a new nitrogen source: hydrazoic acid (HN3). Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2433–2435 (1995)
T. Nagashima, K. Takata, M. Hangyo, Electrical characterization of GaN thin films using terahertz-time domain spectroscopy, in 27th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, (2002), pp. 247–248
T. Nagashima et al., Measurement of electrical properties of GaN thin films using terahertz-time domain spectroscopy. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 44, 926–931 (2005)
W. Zhang, Abul K. Azad and D. Grischkowsky, Terahertz studies of carrier dynamics and dielectric response of n-type, freestanding epitaxial GaN. Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2841–2843 (2003)
T.R. Tsai et al., Terahertz response of GaN thin films. Opt. Express 14, 4898–4907 (2006)
H. Fang et al., Temperature dependence of the point defect properties of GaN thin films studied by terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. Sci. China Phys. Mech. Astron. 56, 2059–2064 (2013)
J. Neu, C.A. Schmuttenmaer, Tutorial: an introduction to terahertz time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS). J. Appl. Phys. 124, 231101 (2018)
T. Kondo et al., Terahertz radiation from (111) InAs surface using 1.55 μm femtosecond laser pulses. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 38, L1035–L1037 (1999)
D.H. Auston, K.P. Cheung, P.R. Smith, Picosecond photoconducting Hertzian dipoles. Appl. Phys. Lett. 45, 284–286 (1984)
N. Sekine, K. Yamanaka, K. Hirakawa, M. Voßebürger, P. Haring-Bolivar, H. Kurz, Observation of terahertz radiation from higher-order two-dimensional plasmon modes in GaAs/AlGaAs single quantum wells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 1006–1008 (1999)
M. Hangyo, S. Tomozawa, Y. Murakami, M. Tonouchi, M. Tani, Z. Wang, K. Sakai, S. Nakashima, Terahertz radiation from superconducting YBa2Cu3O7−δ thin films excited by femtosecond optical pulses. Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2122–2124 (1996)
K. Nikawa, M. Yamashita, T. Matsumoto, C. Otani, M. Tonouchi, Y. Midoh, K. Miura, K. Nakamae, Non-electrical-contact LSI failure analysis using non-bias laser terahertz emission microscope, in Proceedings of 18th IEEE International Symposium on the Physical and Failure Analysis of Integrated Circuits (IPFA), 4–7 July, (2011), pp. 1–5
H. Nakanishi, S. Fujiwara2, K. Takayama2, I. Kawayama, H. Murakami, M. Tonouchi, Imaging of a polycrystalline silicon solar cell using a laser terahertz emission microscope. Appl. Phys. Express. 5, 112301 (2012)
M. Yamashita, T. Kiwa, M. Tonouchi, K. Nikawa, C. Otani, K. Kawase, Laser terahertz emission microscope for inspecting electrical failures in integrated circuits, in International Meeting for Future of Electron Devices, 26–28 July (2004), pp. 29–30
Y. Sakai et al., Visualization of GaN surface potential using terahertz emission enhanced by local defects. Sci. Rep. 5, 13860 (2015)
S. G. Engelbrecht et al., Terahertz electromodulation spectroscopy of electron transport in GaN. Appl. Phys. Lett. 106, 092107–1–3 (2015)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mukherjee, P., Acharyya, A., Inokawa, H., Biswas, A. (2021). Noncontact Characterization Techniques of GaN-Based Terahertz Devices. In: Acharyya, A., Das, P. (eds) Advanced Materials for Future Terahertz Devices, Circuits and Systems. Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, vol 727. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4489-1_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4489-1_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-33-4488-4
Online ISBN: 978-981-33-4489-1
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)